PART ONE
NARRATIVE ANALYSIS
A close link is established between a writer's techniques and
the underlying message of his text. Accordingly, literary analysts handle
various texts to shed light on the features of a work. Speaking about narrative
writing, Henri Lopès (1997: 97) states: «l'écriture est
le véhicule du message.» Actually, our main concern in this
chapter is to answer the following question: what is the quality of discourse
in The Slave Girl? An answer will be given through two chapters: the
author's style and the narrative techniques.
Chapter 1: the author's style
Style refers to discourse technique a writer uses to convey
his message either in prose or in verse; a manner which reveals the writer`s
tonality. This personal way of organizing ideas can be laid on syntax, figure
of thought, and rhetorical questions. In this respect, Buffon (1972: 203)
declares that «the style is the man.»
Taking into account the above quotation, the question that
arises in this chapter is what Buchi Emecheta's style in The Slave Girl
is? This will be answered throughout four sections: repetition,
linguistic interference, comparison, and symbols.
1. Repetition
Repetition is a figure of speech in which words or phrases
occur more than once. Accordingly, Basile Marius NGASSAKI (5 janvier 2006: 44)
asserts:
La répétition comme procédé de
style est une particularité de l'oralité, mais elle prend une
dimension spécifique en Afrique. Cette caractéristique est
présente dans plusieurs aspects de la vie quotidienne. La manière
de saluer de certains peuples africains, par exemple, illustre l'importance de
la répétition. Le nombre de fois que deux personnes se secouent
les mains en guise de salutations peut représenter le nombre de jours,
de semaines, de mois ou d'années de séparation.
This technique is overused in The Slave Girl with
different purposes and functions as stated by Basile Marius NGASSAKI (5 janvier
2006: 44-45):
La répétition se présente comme un
refrain dans lequel l'auditoire retrouve des éléments
déjà mentionnés. Elle contribue à accroître
la nature rythmique du récit. N'oublions pas que le rythme est un
élément artistique indispensable à l'art et à la
littérature orale. Il existe aussi une autre forme de
répétition qui présente une fonction purement phatique.
Elle permet d'intensifier le sens des mots. La répétition peut
aussi marquer la chronologie des événements; ce qui influence
considérablement la technique d'élaboration du
récit.
Actually, there are different kinds of repetitions found in
Buchi Emecheta`s The Slave Girl. But our work will be restricted to
polynsyndeton, inclusio, epistrophe, and anaphora .
In fact, repetition gives a particular intensification in a
novel. In so doing, Buchi Emecheta uses different kinds of repetition. But, the
first one we are going to consider is `polysyndeton' which is the repetition of
conjunctions in a paragraph. In other terms, it is the use of several
conjunctions in close succession, especially where some might be omitted. Thus,
a clearly but excellent illustration of polysyndeton is presented in the
following terms:
At a time when it was glorious to be an
Englishman, when the rein the great Queen Victoria's son was
coming to its close, when the red of the British Empire
covered almost half the map of the world, when colonisation
was at its height, and Nigeria was being taken over by Great Britain.
(Buchi Emecheta, 1977: 15)
In the light of what precedes, Buchi Emecheta writes the
adverb of time «when» four times in a short paragraph to
insist on the moment when colonisation ends. Besides, the author wants to raise
the reader's attention that Nigeria will be free one day.
The second kind of repetition used by Buchi Emecheta in
The Slave Girl is inclusio, the rhetorical figure in which a literary
unit begins and ends with the same (or similar) word, phrase, or clause. This
repetition serves as a framing device, iterating the theme of the section. It
shows the insistence form on facts viewed as important. Thus, an excellent
point in case is the following passage when Ma Palagada talks to Ojebeta:
«Come», she urged Ojebeta,
«I only want to greet you. You haven't said a single word to me.
Come. I am your relative, you know. Come. You
mustn't be frightened to us. We are not bad people. Just
come.» (Buchi Emecheta, 1977: 51)
This passage shows that the verb «come» is
repeated four times to emphasize Ma's need to be close Ojebeta. This redundancy
is a technique of insisting in order to persuade and convince.
Another kind of repetition found in The Slave Girl is
`epistrophe'. It is a rhetorical speech in which the same word or groups of
word are repeated at the end of successive clauses. The following statement is
assuredly a good example of epistrophe when Okolie talks to Ojebeta:
«Ojebeta, we must hurry, we must hurry» (Buchi Emecheta, 1977:
35). This utterance reveals the importance of the message which refers to the
necessity of Okolie to go and sell his sister. This expression shows that there
is no time to waste.
The excellent illustration of epistrophe is also obvious in
the following quotation: «Ma Palagada and Okolie talked and talked in
voices» (Buchi Emecheta, 1977: 54). In this text, the verb `talked is
repeated twice so as to bring the prolixity of both interlocutors.
Moreover, the repetition also occurs at the beginning of
sentences in The Slave Girl. This repetition is called `anaphora' - a
rhetorical figure which consists of repeating the initial word or words of a
clause or sentence at the beginning of successive clauses -. Umeadi, thinking
about `felenza', uses exclamation to express sorrow. . The good illustration is
expressed in the following passage:
«Pom! Pom! Pom! The rumours that
have been going round are true. Pom! There is a kind of death
coming from across the salty waters. It has killed many people in Isele Azagba,
it is creeping to Ogwashi, it is now coming to us. They call it Felenza. It is
a white man's death. They shoot it into the air, and we breathe it in and die.
Pom! Pom....» (Buchi Emecheta, 1977: 25)
In the above quotation, we remark that Buchi Emecheta uses the
exclamation `Pom! Pom! Pom!' at the beginning and at the end of the paragraph
to raise the reader's attention about the seriousness of the epidemic. This
exclamation expresses surprise, emotion and fear of death. Accordingly, Basile
Marius Ngassaki (janvier 2006: 62) asserts that «exclamation is a
category of discourse which shows the natural and inner expressivity. A link is
established between a thought and a word or a linguistic structure which pulls
it out.»
Repetition is also used to bring precision about what has just
been said. Evidence can be shown through the following passage: «I
can't find him, my big brother» (Buchi Emecheta, 1977: 57). Here,
repetition occurs on fact that the personal person «him» refers to
«my big brother». Thus, this implies precision.
To the light of what precedes, it is important to underline
that Buchi Emecheta uses excessive repetitions in The Slave Girl. As a
matter of fact, this stylistic figure is a device of oral literature expressing
the narrator or writer's way of insisting on facts considered important. Among
styles used by Buchi Emecheta in The Slave Girl figures also the
linguistic interference.
2. The Linguistic Interference
Linguistic structure of many Negro African texts is composed
of the writer's mother tongue and the colonialist's languages. This is the
logical consequence of colonialism, because Negro African writers are at the
crossroads of two cultures: African and European, what L. S. Senghor calls
«les métis culturels». In The Slave Girl, in fact,
Buchi Emecheta mixes English words with local ones to render her language more
realistic.
Actually, the linguistic interference in a novel changes the
language real connotation. This can be observed through word by word
translation of the author's mother tongue. This technique is also used by Buchi
in The Slave Girl as evidenced in the following lines:
As he took a few steps from the stall, the girls looked at
her and all of the sudden stopped their endless chatter. Chiogo was the first
to find her tongue. (Buchi Emecheta, 1977: 26)
It results from the above passage that Buchi Emecheta
translates Ibo language into English. Therefore, that leads the text to have
the prolix or talkative style. But, it is important to note that the phrase
«to find her tongue» is used here to mean her impoliteness. In that
case, the lexicon `her tongue' is the translation of popular language. Besides,
the use of «to find her tongue» here shows that the author's
expression is like the simple translation of her mother tongue.
The linguistic interference provokes the orthographic
alterations of certain words in The Slave Girl. In fact, the narrator
transcribes the characters' language containing terms or phrases whose spelling
is inaccurate. Thus, the following passage shows evidence:
But this felenza was a new thing that the
«Potokis» had shot into the air, through everyone wondered why
(Buchi Emecheta, 1977: 26).
It results from this passage that the distorted lexicon is
`felenza' because it does not exist amongst English vocabulary. In this
respect, Buchi Emecheta uses Nigerian English certainly to adapt her message to
make language more vivid. In linguistics, this is called `the word creation'.
As a matter of fact, this altered word is used instead of `influenza' to
report Umeadi's thoughts. This borrowed word plunges into the local linguistic
flavour to meet the characteristics of pronunciation of the native language.
Another example of mispronunciation and orthographic
alteration can be observed in the utterance below:
They all ate together, and had to go to the stream to
fetch water, and she had to help in the large cooking place they called
«Kinsheni», or something like that (Buchi Emecheta, 1977:
61).
In this above utterance, the distorted item is
«Kinseni». Through this, we understand that the narrator wants to say
`kitchen. But the problem here is the word mispronunciation. Eventually, Buchi
Emecheta altered this lexical item certainly to match the characters' origin
and his/her linguistic expression.
Additionally, The Slave Girl comprises distorted
names of nations.
Now, in the year of 1916, the rumours said that the new
colonial masters were at near with their neighbours «the Germanis»;
and the latter fought the British by blowing poisonous gas into the air
(Buchi Emecheta, 1977: 27).
From the above quotation, the lexicon «Germanis» is
the alteration of the `Germans'. Actually, in the Slave Girl, Buchi
Emecheta uses `neologism', the literary style which consists of creating words
in a given literary genre. In this respect, `felenza', `Kinsheni', and
`Germanis' are lexical items mispronounced by African characters.
The linguistic interference can also occur when Ibo words,
phrases, or sentences are mixed with English ones. In fact, like many African
writers, Buchi Emecheta mixes English lexical items with local ones throughout
The Slave Girl because some of them cannot be translated into
English. As a matter of fact, Ma Palagada, talking with Ma Mee about
Mrs Simpson, says: «Look, she has her ntukwashi over her
shoulder» (Buchi Emecheta, 1977: 103). Obviously, Buchi Emecheta uses
the Ibo local word `ntukwashi' in this passage because the English translation
may not be appropriate.
Sometimes, local words in The Slave Girl are
explained in English so that non native Ibo speakers understand properly this
language. The example that follows illustrates the point at issue:
«..., and some still emigrated to what was known as «Olu
Oyibo», white men's work» (Buchi Emecheta, 1977: 80). This
technique renders the text more explicit because readers are from various
origins. Nevertheless, what is important here is that Buchi writes all Ibo
words in italics and with inverted comas to raise a particular attention to
readers.
Moreover, the resort to the linguistic interference explains
the author's attachment to her native languages. To close this section, we can
say that this technique from the beginning to the end of The Slave Girl.
That explains the fact that Buchi's characters speak a language which is,
in fact, close to their sociological environment. It is certainly the reason
why those characters in their speaking want to reproduce their particular
mother tongue's pronunciation or Ibo words. That can also be explained that the
author wants to value her culture and defy the colonialist's languages. To do
so, Buchi Emecheta creates her own literary style. As a matter of fact,
Charlotte Bruner (1986: 129) asserts:
«It was natural that when Western literary genres
featuring the imposed European languages were integrated with African oral
tradition, the narrative took on new form and expression. Some of today's
internationally known African writers have created new forms of novels (...).
In doing so, they have used their own linguistic creations:
«Nigerian» or «Ghanaian» and Negritude French.»
Apart from the linguistic interference, comparison is also the
main concern of this chapter.
3. Comparison
Comparison is defined as the act or process of examining two
or more people or things in order to discover similarities and differences
between them. As far as stylistics is concerned, it is a figure of speech which
consists of comparing two elements in order to picture his/her message. In this
way, the writers draw a comparison between two things. In fact, Buchi
Emecheta's The Slave Girl comprises excessive use of comparison. In
this regard, simile and metaphor will be our main concern in this section.
3.1. Simile
The Columbia Encyclopaedia, 6th edition,
defines simile as follows: «A simile is a figure of speech used to make a
comparison between two things with the words `like', `than', or `as'.»
This technique is excessively used in The Slave Girl. Therefore, it is
interpreted differently depending on the context in which it is expressed.
Thus, the following conversation between Uteh and Ojebeta is a perfect
illustration of simile:
«And the young in white I saw there, who looked like
a ghost and walked like a ghost and a sleep-walker-was the new bride?»
(Buchi Emecheta, 1977: 153-154)
It results from this passage that in this simile «the new
bride» is compared to «a ghost" and «a sleep walker». From
this, Buchi Emecheta uses what is called in stylistics `imaginative
comparison'- the kind of mental similarity that is expressed in similes and
metaphors -. Additionally, this is used here to disappoint Ojebeta. It is
important to note that in this passage the author raises the matter of the
conflict between modernism and traditionalism.
Simile also occurs by comparing human beings with animals.
Describing Eke market, the narrator reports it as follows: «People
swarmed and buzzed like insects» (Buchi, 1977: 44). In fact, this
simile stands for that Eke market is crowded of people making noise. It is also
important to note that the verbs «swarmed» and «buzzed» in
the above simile are used figuratively because they are especially for insects
not for human beings. But this explains certainly that Buchi Emecheta wants to
focus on everyday activities at the market because insects work together and in
bulk.
Apart from that, Buchi Emecheta uses sometimes hyperbole, a
figure of speech in which statements are exaggerated, to express simile.
Describing Ojebeta, the narrator compares her in the following manner:
She ran, almost flew like arrow, her little legs like
swings, her heart beating fast in fear and anticipation, going as she fought to
her brother (Buchi Emecheta, 1977: 57).
From the above simile, we can say that Buchi Emecheta compares
Ojebeta's «legs» to «swings» to demonstrate her vivacity in
running. As a matter of fact, this simile is called a `beyond comparison',
comparison which is out of the reality, because a man could not run as fast as
an arrow.
Actually, the saying that follows is also a perfect
illustration of simile: «there is in some truth in the saying that we
die as we live» (Buchi Emecheta, 1977: 24). Actually, in this simile
the author compares `death' with `life' to refer to biblical reality saying
that we kill by a sword will die by a sword. In clear, it means that people are
responsible for their death.
The other use of simile in The Slave Girl is to
express anger and emotion as illustrated by the relationship between Clifford
and Ojebeta. His expectation to have special relationship with her drives him
to forbid her work hard as the other slaves do. Retorting negatively, Pa
Palagada expresses her feelings through the following simile: «It was
like a dog barking, so forceful and full of anger» (Buchi Emecheta,
1977: 119). In fact, this simile expresses irritation. Through this simile
Buchi Emecheta denounces inequality or injustice because all people must be
considered as the same. Having analysed simile, it is important to deal with
the sub-section entitled metaphor.
3.2. Metaphor
This sub-chapter devoted to metaphors will be examined after
defining the key term for our best understanding. Metaphor derives from Latin
word `metaphora' which means `to carry, to transfer'. Collins Essential
English dictionary, (Second Edition, 2006) defines metaphor as
a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to
an object or action that it does not literally apply to in order to imply a
resemblance, for example he is a lion in battle.
The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English in
its turn defines metaphor as
«A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is
applied to an object or action to which it is not literary applicable.»
Metaphor is used to draw a particular attention to the reader.
In The Slave Girl, Buchi Emecheta uses metaphor extensively. A perfect
illustration is the following passage:
«Ojebeta!» he called, using his masterly tone.
«Tell nobody until the time becomes ripe.» (Buchi Emecheta,
1977: 118)
From this quotation, the key lexical item expressing metaphor
is the adjective «ripe». In fact, this adjective is used here
figuratively to connote `ready'. In the other terms, this refers to the time
when the execution or the realization will come true.
In view of what precedes, Buchi Emecheta uses metaphor to
raise the reader's knowledge to connote the meaning of words regarding language
in use. This section is also concerned with symbols.
4. Symbols
The Dictionary of the English Language,
(Fourth Edition, 2003) defines a symbol as
«Something that represents something else by
association, resemblance, or convention, especially a material object used to
represent something invisible.»
Since Africans believe in traditional realities, that may be
one of the reasons for African writers to use symbols in most of their works.
In fact, in Buchi Emecheta's The Slave Girl, symbols are utilized for
different purposes. In this section, we will focus on the following two
symbols: cowries, and kola nut.
4.1. Cowries
In ancient times, the cowries were currency used in Nigeria as
in many African countries such as Nigerian in the same way as dollar is today.
In fact, they have different connotative meanings. They are used first for
protection against misfortune; then they are utilized as a currency, finally,
they are drawn on as a dowry given to in-laws. Telling about the importance of
cowries, Alafia Hapushel (1995: 30) asserts:
«I know I always feel good and grounded when I am
wearing them [cowries]. Anyone has similar experiences or story to
share?»
As we can observe from this assertion, Africans give a
particular importance to cowries because they think that they bring good luck
in whatever they do.
Actually, cowries also symbolize Goddess protection which is
very powerful and connected with the strength of the ocean. In The Slave
Girl, the author writes that Umeadi could bear daughters, but could not
stay long. After Obejeta's birth, Umeadi wears her cowries so that she protects
her from death:
«Your child will stay this time if you tie her with
safety charms. These must consist of cowries, tops of tins brought here by
protokis, and real bells made from metal.» (Buchi, 1977: 18)
Once more, this example shows that cowrie is one of the key
elements for protection. This feature can be extended some human organs.
Evidently, it is relevant to say from the passage below that Africans believe
in cowries for they protect female genitals against evil spirits and they allow
them be more healthy. Accordingly, Denis Roberson (1977: 45) declares:
«As I understand it the cowrie also represents
Goddess protection; in the Yoruba tradition this would be Yemonja /Olukan - who
also is the energy of water and the sea incidentally. My understanding is the
cowrie's similarity to the appearance of the female genitals.»
Considering the importance given to motherhood in African
communities, it is quite understandable for these people to care for female
genitals as stated in the above quotation. Bringing fertility is an important
factor for good.
In fact, cowries symbolize also dowry given to parents before
getting married. Besides, cowries symbolise the power of destiny and
prosperity. The most telling example will come from Alafia Happyshel's
assertion (1945: 25):
«For many people in Africa, there are associated (as
I understand it) with Eshu / Eleggua, the Orisa of the crosswords, of destiny,
warriors Orisa and prosperity, all over yorubaland, as well as with many other
African people.»
Obviously, cowries have different attributes in Buchi
Emecheta's The Slave Girl. They play an important role in African
society since religion is highly valued in this environment. Beside this
symbol, we also find kola nuts in The Slave Girl.
4.2. Kola nuts
According to African culture, kola nuts are the pods of
various evergreen trees that grow mostly in Africa. These fruits are often used
during ceremonies, presented to chiefs or guests. They are eaten daily without
any particular purpose. Sometimes, they are used to make non-alcoholic drinks.
Because it contains caffeine, the kola acts as a stimulant to be alive. In this
regard, it is considered as a symbol of life in Africa.
In some parts of Africa, especially in West Saharan countries,
kola nuts are given or shared between people to welcome visitors entering a
home, usually during some formal ceremonies. On page 16 of The Slave
Girl, for instance, Ukwuenkwu, the interpreter, shares kola nut with the
District Officer to welcome him during the court ceremony between the villagers
and the missionaries as the narrator reports:
Okwuenkwu had smiled, and he had chewed kolanut with the
new D.O. and his interpreter (who was called locally the «tapilita»).
(Buchi, 1977: 16)
Actually, it is relevant to note from this passage that
offering a kola nut is a gesture of friendship and hospitality. In the same
vein, Eze Ugo (1985: 25) asserts:
«Oji [kola] is the first thing served in
every function or ceremony, personal or communal agreements, welcoming of a
visitor to an Igbo home, and settlement of family disputes.»
The above assertion shows that kola nuts symbolise peace and
welcome. It provides an important symbolic message in Africa, mostly in Western
Africa. Actually, the kola nut is eaten with among people to welcome each
other. In fact, Ojebeta's aunt does not hope to see her anymore; surprisingly,
Ojebeta is back home (Ibuza) after a long stay in Onitsha. To celebrate her
arrival and to welcome her, Uteh shares kola nut with Afo:
«Afo, have this chalk, and eat this peace of kolanut,
for my daughter who I thought had died is back, Afo, eat kolanut....»
(Buchi Emecheta, 1977: 149)
From the above utterance, Buchi Emecheta shows the importance
of kola nut in African society. Here it also symbolises affectivity.
To summarize this chapter, we can say that Buchi Emecheta uses
a very simple style with everyday language rather using complex metaphors or
symbols in The Slave Girl; besides, her language used in this novel
can just be powerful in evoking an emotional reaction to the reader. As a
matter in case, Buchi Emecheta (1979) believes that the oral tradition has
influenced her style:
«I put all those things a bit but I try to limit
them, just concentrate on the story. You can evoke such emotions especially
when feel deeply about what you are talking about even if you use ordinary
language. I think that is my style.»
After the analysis of the chapter related to the author's
style, let us examine the next one linked to the narrative techniques.
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