The U.S foreign policy in the horn of Africa

Acknowledgment

I wish to express my most sincere gratitude and thanks to my supervisor Mr. Gildas Le Voguer, for his constructive criticism and inspiring comments and questions during the course of writing this thesis.

A heartfelt thank you goes to my teacher Mr. Florian Tréguer, for taking time to evaluate and comment on my work.

My deepest thanks go to my brother Abdillahi Mohamed Youssouf, Mrs. Fathiya, and my best friend Mohamed Ali Bileh, for engaging in my thesis by always valuable and inspiring feedback. Thank you for always backing me and believing in me.

I would also like to thank those who helped me during the research process and assisted me with materials worth reading for my research. These include Mrs. Mireille Chereul, who is part of the Central Library staff at the University of Rennes 2. I am also thankful to the staff of the `PEB' of the central library for their constant support. For all of my wonderful friends old and new, thanks for always being there for me!

My profound thanks also go to Mahamed Dahir Afrax without whose encouragement, suggestions and help it would have been difficult to write this research project. My heartfelt gratitude goes also to Professor I. M. Lewis whose encouragement and advice made my research possible. My sincere thanks go also to the following that have assisted me in different ways Prof Abdi Ismail Samatar of University of Minnesota, Abdullahi Abdille of the International Crisis Group, Asha Abdiand Abdullahi Hassan of Human Rights Watch.

Table of Content

I. The Horn of Africa: An analysis of Its Geostrategic Significance

a) The importance of the Horn of Africa

b) Competing foreign powers in the geostrategic Horn of Africa

c) The Horn of Africa: A Playing Field of Foreign Powers

II. America's foreign policy towards the Horn of Africa during the Cold War

a) The Horn of Africa in the shadow of the Cold War

b) U.S. /U.S.S.R. rivalry in East Africa

1.1 The U.S. Strategic Interest in Ethiopia during the Cold War Era

1.2 The U.S. Strategic Interest in Somalia during the Cold War Era

1.3 The U.S. Strategic Interest Towards Kenya during the Cold War Era

III. The Cold War and interstate relations

a) The impact of the Cold War on the Ethiopia-Somalia relations

b) Defining Inter-State Conflicts Patterns

1.1 Ogaden War

Conclusion

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AU African Union

ELF Eritrea Liberation Front

EPLF Eritrean Peoples' Liberation Front

IGAD Intergovernmental Authority for Development

NFD Northern Frontier District

NSC National Security Council

CIA Community Intelligence Agency

OAU Organization of African Unity

ONLF Ogaden National Liberation Front

SALT II Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II

TPLF Tigray People's Liberation Front

Introduction

The United States of America is defined today as one of the most powerful countries in the world and its influence throughout the world cannot be denied. In fact, the United States has known different political environments when it comes to its foreign affairs since World War II and during the Cold War to the present day. In addition, the term «foreign policy» refers to a policy pursued by a nation in its dealings with other nations, designed to achieve national objectives.^1(*)The foreign policy of the United States of America has known different and complicated periods. It has started from 'isolationism', `expansionism' in the nineteenth century to 'interventionism' and even possibly `new imperialism' in the following centuries.

Another hallmark of American foreign policy, scholar Thomas M. Magstadt holds, is the tension between power and principles.^2(*) Foreign policy can be defined as a set of ideas and strategies aimed at promoting the natural interests of sovereign states in an environment of anarchy.^3(*) Self-interests ought to be therefore understood as a fundamental factor of a nation's foreign policy, and ought to be consistently taken into account by policy makers. Foreign policy should also be based on by a set of ideas and values. According to Magstadt, American foreign policy has been characterized by a tension and struggle between the pursuit of power and principles since the founding of the nation.^4(*)This provides the main concept that the U.S. often sets up the strategy to safeguard and put forward its foreign policy.

Previously, the United States of America did not pay attention to Africa and used to associate Africa with negativity. Afterwards, very briefly at the beginning of the Cold War, the U.S. started to get interested in Africa, especially the Horn of Africa. Africa is strategically located between the United States of America and Asia, providing alternate air and sea routes to the Far East and Middle East. The United States has established naval and air facilities in Africa in order to ensure free and secure flow of Persian Gulf and Southern African fuel and non-fuel minerals to the industrial West.^5(*) Additionally, the end of colonialism left many African States politically unstable, which made the region fit for great-power rivalry. The region drew the attention of American for several reasons. The access to raw materials was perhaps the most important: Zaire, Nigeria, Gabon, Namibia and South Africa were among the largest suppliers of respectively cobalt, oil, manganese, uranium and platinum for the USA.

Furthermore, the Horn of Africa is located in a strategic place, so the U.S. was interested in intervening in this area during the Cold War. The Horn of Africa, as defined by the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), stretches over an area of 5.2 million square kilometers that comprises the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan and Uganda.^6(*) The America involvement in those countries is to enhance their economic and security. Basically, the United States' policy in the Horn of African States provides more emphasis on its national rather than for international laws and mutual benefit. This work research will explain the interest that the USA has in this region in terms of militarization, humanitarian aid, and drought aid. The goal is to show that the U.S. practices interventionism in the Horn, especially through the interactions which link both sides.

The most important purpose of this research is to describe and explain the relationship between the U.S. and the HOA. The USA believes that having a good relationship with the Horn of Africa is the key point to set up a sustainable relation with the rest of the African states that the U.S. is willing to establish a bilateral relation in the future. The current relationship between the U.S. and the Horn of Africa is remarkable and improving. Both sides have strong relationship. Unfortunately, The Horn of African states do not benefit from this opportunity in the same way or they do not have the same conception of how to deal with the U.S. foreign policy.

Furthermore, the U.S. involvement in the Horn of Africa is proof of the importance of the region not only for its potential resources but also for all the superpowers such as the EU and China which have military bases in order to protect their national objectives. The United States of America's foreign policymakers have implemented strategies to establish strong and lasting relations with each state in the region so that in return, the U.S. will have the opportunity to keep its interest in the region. They contemplate the best way to adopt a durable relation which is based on«win win» cooperation. The United States gives priority to protecting the trade that crosses the sea of ??Bab el Mandab to secure these goods composed of gas, oil and petrol but also to fight against piracy that becomes an obstacle to the international trade which crosses the Red Sea.

In addition, the United States has had the good fortune to be able to maintain a successful wait-and-see policy in the Horn of Africa and the country has a good relation with most of the Horn of Africa states. This essay focuses on the foreign policy of the United States in respect to the Horn of Africa in general and with each particular state during and after the Cold War. It will argue that during and after the Cold War, the United States foreign policy towards the Horn of Africa focused on providing development and humanitarian assistance, settling conflicts, creating stability in the region and resolving many kinds of conflicts and violence particularly on countering international security threats i.e. terrorism. The United States has also been encouraging good governance, rule of law, and respect of human rights, poverty alleviation measures, etc ... As underlined in the foreign policy agenda of the Department of State, which are "to build and sustain a more democratic, secure, and prosperous world for the benefit of the American people and the international community."^7(*)

Notwithstanding, the strategic importance of the Horn Africa has been dramatized in recent years by the area's proximity to the Middle East oil fields and the Indian Ocean trade routes. The United States has a vital interest in keeping open the strait of Bab el Mandeb, the port of Djibouti, and the Red Sea for the free flow of international shipping, especially to North America, Western Europe, and Israel. For these reasons, the Red Sea is today a focus of East-West rivalry. Methodologically, this study employs qualitative research methodology. Accordingly, the study uses primary and secondary source of data; collected from books, published journal articles, published and unpublished theses, governmental and non-governmental organization reports and remarks, and other Internet sources. All the data gathered are qualitative; the study employs qualitative data analysis techniques.

To answer to the key question posed by this study - what are the implications for U.S. policy toward the Horn of Africa during the Cold War? - It is necessary to briefly consider the United States of America and the region's relationship. In the first part of my work, I will put forward the geostrategic importance of the Horn of Africa. Secondly I will discuss the U.S. foreign policy towards the Horn of Africa during the Cold War. Finally, I will describe the Cold War and interstate relations.

I. The Horn of Africa: An analysis of Its Geostrategic Significance

a) The importance of the Horn of Africa

Historically, the region was a playing field for Ottoman Turkey, Portugal and Egypt and during the colonial periods it was between Britain, Italy and France. Additionally, during the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union and now between Arab countries, Western, China and the emerging powers notably India. The Horn of Africa, however, with the exception of Ethiopia, was mainly colonized by the European powers at the end of the nineteenth century and was divided between the French, the British, and the Italians. Djibouti was designated French Somaliland in 1885, British Somaliland included the region of the Gulf of Aden, and Italian Somaliland included control of the region nearest the Indian Ocean, as well as the Red Sea colony of Eritrea. Basically, Kenya was colonized by the British and after a long struggle it gained its independence in 1963.

This essay puts forward the geostrategic location of the Horn of Africa. In fact, it has potential resources so that the western superpowers and the emerging countries are willing to construct a relation with the region. The Horn of Africa is the single most geo-strategically important region in the world. Its geostrategic significance is associated with the Red Sea, oil and the «Nile factor.»The region is significant for maritime security, international trade (exports and imports), anti-terrorism campaigns and anti-piracy operations, access to the world's largest oil source in the Middle Eastern Arab Gulf. Peter Woodward notices:

Furthermore, from the standpoint of great powers, for many years the Horn has been as much as a strategic concern with regard of the Red Sea shipping lanes, especially the potential southern pinch point of the Bab al-Mandeb straits, as it has been a concern in relation to the rest of Africa. In this regard the Horn has offered opportunities for base facilities not only for the Red Sea and Arabian Sea, but also with potential use for the Gulf which was off limits for the great powers bases during the Cold War it and effect until the Gulf War of 1990-1991.^8(*)

The region possesses a lot of opportunities because of its location; those opportunities are the ones which push most foreign nations to give particular attention to the region. Indeed, the notion of `geo-strategic' interest may demonstrate the link between security, power and the geographical area in the international world order. Geographically, the Horn of Africa, almost equidistant from the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer, is an arid region. The Horn of Africa (alternatively Northeast Africa, and sometimes the Somali Peninsula) is a peninsula of East Africa that extends for hundreds of kilometers into the Arabian Sea, and lies along the southern side of the Gulf of Aden. It is the eastern most projection of the African continent.

Moreover, only a few miles from the Arabian Peninsula and thus near seaways vital to the world economy, the Horn of Africa is a strategic area. The Horn of Africa is both a geographical and political expression. In general, the geographical meaning consists of rhino-horn shaped part of Northeast Africa countries, including Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti and Eritrea. Also, the Horn of Africa has close ties with the petro states of Arab countries, especially with Egypt and Yemen. The Horn controls the Bab el Mandeb Strait, which is one of the important global transportation routes which dominates part of the Gulf of Aden, the gateway from the Mediterranean with Suez to the Indian Ocean.

Indeed, the region benefits from its geostrategic location to enhance its economy: the international trade that crosses the Red Sea which is taxed by the states surrounded the Red Sea such as Djibouti. It is important to notice that the Horn of Africa is one of the most politically dynamic regions in the world, even though some of the region's states do not benefit equally from this extraordinary opportunity. The core of this region has attracted once again in its history the attention of great powers.

The strategic importance of the Horn Africa has been dramatized in recent years both area's proximity to the Middle East fields and the Indian Ocean trade routes. The United States has a vital interest in keeping open the strait of Bab el Mandeb, the port of Djibouti, and the Red Sea for the free flow of international shipping, especially to North America, Western Europe, and Israel. For these reasons, the Red Sea is today a focus of East-West tension between Arab leagues.

Furthermore, the Horn of Africa is considered today one of the most strategic locations in the world mainly for the reason that the region is full of natural resources, for instance oil, gas and petrol that are not yet explored. Experts have asserted that the region is full of raw materials and many other things. In other words, the region's states may reach a successful development if the states that the HOA comprise come up with a strong inter-state cooperation and of course if they construct a common foreign policy that is based on the interest of the region in order minimize the external powers' involvement, which is trying to divide the region's relation, and strengthen the relation with foreign powers.

Despite the fact that the HOA is located in a strategic place; it is its handling of internal problems which are weakening the region: The Horn of Africa intra-State and inter-State conflicts and security has become a frequent issue and it is one of the main obstacles that hold back the region. In addition, droughts, famines, civil wars and the absence of peace in the Horn have their roots in a long and complex history, in its political economy, the state formation processes and struggles, the international interventions, identity conflicts and environmental changes. Domestic issues overshadow the region like the ever-lasting conflicts, droughts, human rights, civil wars, extremist groups, and much more. The Horn of Africa remains largely poverty-stricken and in need of development. Conflicts and restrictive regulations in and between member countries do little to facilitate border openness, trade, and infrastructural development such as railway and hospitals and also critical components in the growth of a nation.

b) Competing foreign powers in the geostrategic Horn of Africa

The Horn of Africa has been the heart of the Cold War and it could be said that the region was one of the battlegrounds of this war between the U.S. and the Soviet Union in that specific period. However, the Horn of Africa has become, in the 21st century, the world's first ever-largest military base of foreign powers. It can be argued that the region has become a «military garrison»: in other words, it could be said that the HOA is the heart of African politics.

The heart of the matter is to control the Red Sea, and whatever the outcome may be, it is bound to have a major impact beyond the Horn, affecting the course of superpower relation. The HOA is in a competing field for foreign powers today. The HOA is a home for most of the superpowers countries and at the same time the emerging countries such as Turkey, Saudi Arabia, and so on. All these countries mentioned above are implicated in security and the stability of the region and effectively they are the competing foreign powers in the geostrategic Horn of Africa.

The rise of superpowers' involvement in the Horn has increased over the last two decades. There are some superpowers which are willing to have bases in the Horn such as Russia and some that have already constructed their bases in one of the Horn of Africa's states. The French, however, which colonized Djibouti and many other superpowers, have already established military bases in this tiny country Djibouti. It is important to remind that Djibouti is located in a strategic place whereby it is surrounded countries that are handling with instability such as Somalia, Yemen and Ethiopia. This has made Djibouti so different from other the Horn of Africa states. Nevertheless, the countries that have already a military base in the HOA, especially Djibouti include the U.S.A., France, Germany, Italy, Japan, China, Saudi Arabia and Russia which will join very soon while Djiboutian officials have rejected the Iranian request for a military base.

* ¹http://www.dictionary.com/browse/foreign-policy

* ²Thomas Magstadt, An Empire If You Can Keep It-Power and principales in American foreign policy (Washington: CQ Press, 2004).1

* ³Ibid. 5

* ⁴Ibid

* ⁵Pakistan Institute of International Affairs US MILITARY BASES IN AFRICA

Author(s): Lutfullah Mangi Source: Pakistan Horizon,Vol. 40, No. 2 (Second Quarter 1987), pp. 95-102

Published by: Pakistan Institute of International Affairs

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41394247

Accessed: 02-03-2018 09:10 UTC

* ⁶https://igad.int/about-us/the-igad-region

* ⁷https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States#cite_note-2 ( "Bureau of Budget and Planning". State.gov. Retrieved 18 February 2015).

* ⁸P. Woodward, US Foreign Policy and the Horn of Africa, p.2, published 2016