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UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU-NATAL
BELIEFS AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS MALE DOMESTIC
VIOLENCE
IN SOUTH KIVU
By
Mugisho Ndabuli Théophile
209 526
069
A dissertation submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of
Master of Commerce in
Conflict Resolution and Peace
Studies
School of Economics and Finance
Faculty of Management
Studies
Supervisor: Dr Sylvia Kaye
Declaration
I, MUGISHO Ndabuli Théophile, declare that
(i) The research reported in this dissertation, except where
otherwise indicated, is my
original research.
(ii) This dissertation has not been submitted for any degree or
examination at any
other university.
(iii) This dissertation does not contain other persons' writing,
unless specifically
acknowledged as being sourced from other researchers. Where other
written sources have been quoted, then:
a) their words have been re-written but the general information
attributed to them has been referenced;
b) where their exact words have been used, their writing has
been placed inside quotation marks, and referenced.
(iv) This dissertation does not contain text, graphics or tables
copied and pasted from
the Internet, unless specifically acknowledged, and the source
being detailed in the dissertation and in the references sections.
Signature:
Dedication
I humbly dedicate this research to my Beloved Family; that is my
dear wife Bahati Valérie, our tender daughter and our lovely son,
respectively Jemima Shengamungu and Samuel Mugisho.
Equally, I devote this effort to my late father Laurent Ndabuli
and my mother Laurentine M'Nyabagugu who gave me the very first courage and
chance to attend school and so discover the scientific world.
Finally, this research is dedicated to all the women of the
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), particularly those of South Kivu Province
who experience their husbands' domestic violence.
With gratitude, respect and love.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank and appreciate the different people and
establishments that in a way or another encouraged and assisted me in the
completion of this dissertation. I primarily am very grateful to the Almighty
God who created me and provided me with the strength and the occasion to engage
in postgraduate education. I am convinced that without these supports my
studies could not have been successful at the University of KwaZulu-Natal in
South Africa.
My simple expression cannot fully explain the gratefulness
that I am to express to my supervisor, Dr Sylvia Kaye of the aforementioned
university. Her untiring intellectual cooperation and friendship throughout
this dissertation needs more than many thanks. She courageously assisted me to
make this research stimulating and great deal of fun. I thank her from the
bottom of my heart for so many constructive corrections and pieces of advice
that I acquired from her. In fact, if she was not supportive and committed to
this dissertation, it would not be possible for me to write and complete it.
Dear Dr Sylvia Kaye, millions of thanks go to you for your understanding and
kindness.
In the same vein, I would like to convey my sincere thanks of
gratitude to the Academic and Administrative personnel and all professors of
University of KwaZulu-Natal in the Faculty of Peace Studies and Conflict
Resolution for having taught us the nonviolent methods of seeking and achieving
peace and social harmony. As a person living in a community that is greatly
affected by domestic violence, the principles of conflict transformation and
making peace allowed me and still empower me with the force to work together
with people in order to walk towards a culture of peace for providing
constructive and assured future to future households and to develop peaceful
and united societies in the world and in the DRC in particular.
I am thankful to the South Kivu leadership that allowed me to
conduct this research in the province in a safe way. I am also very indebted to
the South Kivu men who accepted to participate to this research. Their
willingness to spend their time, despite their many occupations, during the
different lengthy interviews and to share their personal experience
about beliefs and attitudes of male domestic violence in the
province of South Kivu were very important. Without their input, this
dissertation would not have been complete.
Last but not least, I am thankful to my dear wife Bahati
Valérie, our daughter Jemima Shengamungu and our son Samuel Mugisho; my
brothers and friends Aganzemungu Theo, Bahemuka Gedeon, Boney Nyamugege,
Byabushi John, Cishugi Nyangezi, Pascal Birindwa, Juvenal Shemamba and many
others for their loving and encouraging ways through which they have supported
me, shouldered great responsibilities and have borne the heavy consequences of
my absence in our family when I used to be far away from them in South Africa
attending Summer School activities.
You are all greatly thanked here.
Mugisho Ndabuli Théophile
Abstract
Domestic violence is a branch of Gender Based Violence (GBV).
Domestic violence is directed towards family members, particularly the wife and
so it is rampant in the world. This research delves in the beliefs and
attitudes towards male domestic violence in South Kivu province of the
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). It also provides a comprehensive
understanding of some different factors, forms, reasons and consequences of
such violence in the province.
This research used qualitative approach with focus group and
in-depth interviews with adult men in the mentioned province. There were
organised two focus groups and two in-depth interviews. Fourteen men
participated to these interviews. The researcher selected them with the help of
the provincial authorities.
The dynamism of men's beliefs and attitudes towards domestic
violence in this province is of paramount importance to understand. The
research found that South Kivu men believe that asserting power and masculinity
in the family in general, particularly to the wife is their right. This
connectivity promotes the widespread of GBV in the province. The participants
also revealed that society fosters men's power and masculinity over family
members. This actually makes domestic violence become a culture in the area.
In combating domestic violence through means of education,
awareness raising and law reinforcement and its fair implementation, families
can be harmonious. This is possible if society motivates men to use their power
and masculinity in a constructive way, and if the victims are helped to restore
their self esteem, regain hope and break the silence.
List of acronyms and abbreviations
AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
CEDAW: Convention on the Elimination of All forms of
Discrimination Against
Women
COFAPRI: Congolese Females Action for Promoting Rights and
Development
DRC: The Democratic Republic of the Congo
FAO: Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations.
GBV: Gender Based Violence
GLR: Great Lakes Region
HIV: Human Immune Deficiency Virus
HRW: Human Rights Watch
ICRW: The International Centre for Research on Women
IRC: International Rescue Committee
IVAWA: International Violence Against Woman Act
MONUC: Mission des Nations Unies au Congo (United Nations Mission
in the Congo)
MSF: Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without
Borders)
n.d No date
NGOs: Non Governmental Organisations
PTSD: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
STDs: Sexually Transmitted Diseases
SWFW: Safe World For Women
UN: United Nations
UNAIDS: United Nations programme on AIDS.
UNDP: The United Nations Development Programme
UNFPA: The United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF: The United Nations Children's Fund (former United Nations
International
Children's Emergency Fund)
UNIFEM: United Nations Development Fund for Women
USA: The United States of America
VAW: Violence Against Women
WFP: World Food Programme
WHO: World Health Organization
WPC: Women Power Connect
WTBTS: Watch Tower Bible Tract Society
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration iiDedication iiiAcknowledgments. iv
Abstract viList of acronyms and abbreviations.
viiTable of contents ix
CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 The context and research rationale 1
1.2 Brief presentation of South Kivu province 3
1.2.1 Geographical situation 3
1.2.2 Historical situation 6
1.2.3 Cultural situation .7
1.3 Problem statement 9
1.4 Global objectives and specific aims 10
1.5 Structure of the research 11
1.6 Population of the study 12
1.7 Difficulties encountered 13
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
14
2.1 Introduction 14
2.2 Overview on violence 14
2.3 Theoretical framework 15
2.4 Domestic violence 17
2.4.1 Definition 17
2.4.2 Forms of domestic violence 17
2.4.2.1 Domestic emotional violence. 18
2.4.2.2 Domestic physical violence 19
2.4.2.3 Domestic sexual violence 19
2.4.2.4 Domestic economic violence 21
2.4.2.5 Domestic spiritual violence 21
2.4.3 Grounds for domestic violence 22
2.4.3.1 Cultural imbalance and social customs 22
2.4.3.2 Abuser's emotions 23
2.4.3.3 Abuser's past history 23
2.4.3.4 Media and parents negligence 23
2.4.3.5 Substance abuse 24
2.4.3.6 Influence of sports 25
2.4.4 Effects of domestic violence . 25
2.4.4.1 Social effects .. 25
2.4.4.2 Effects on the victim . 26
2.4.4.3 Health effects 26
2.4.4.4 Sexual effects 27
2.4.4.5 Economic effects . 27
2.4.4.6 Damage on marriage 27
2.4.4.7 Effects on children 28
2.4.5 Culture of domestic violence . 28
2.5 Prevalence of domestic violence . 29
2.6 Link between masculinity, power and GBV 30
2.7 Conclusion . 32
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH APPROACHES . 33
3.1 Introduction... 33
3.2 Approaches for data collection and procedure 33
3.2.1 Approaches for data collection 33
3.2.1.1 Documentary approach 35
3.2.1.2 Focus group 36
3.2.1.3 In-depth interviews 37
3.2.2 Procedure 39
3.3 Sample . 41
3.4 Data analysis 42
3.5 Ethical issues. .... 44
3.6 Limitations of the research 45
3.7 Conclusion... 46
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH DATA ANALYSIS 47
4.1 Introduction . 47
4.2 Sample characteristics 48
4.3 Key determinants of males' beliefs and attitudes 48
4.3.1 Society 48
4.3.2 Masculinity. 57
4.3.3 Power assertion 59
4.4 Men's beliefs of domestic violence. 61
4.4.1 Women like abusive men. 61
4.4.2 Women attract violence on themselves. 63
4.4.3 No woman can leave her home because of violence. 65
4.4.4 Women fear to divulge husbands' abuse. 68
4.5 Men's attitudes of domestic violence. 70
4.5.1 Men support domestic violence. 70
4.5.2 Friends' pressure and domestic violence. 73
4.5.3 Dowry entitlement and domestic violence. 78
4.5.4 Domestic violence is man's self protection... 79
4.6 Conclusion 81
CHAPTER FIVE: GENERAL CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.
83
5.1 Research synopsis. 83
5.2 Recommendations. 87
5.2.1 To the government. 87
5.2.2 To community. 87
REFERENCES 89
APPENDICES 102
Appendix 1: Focus group and in-depth interviews... 102
Appendix 2: South Kivu authority permission to conduct research
103
Appendix 3: Interviewees' forms of consent. 104
Appendix 4: Protocol reference letter 107
CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 The context and research rationale
The spread of violence, domestic assault towards women in
particular, in the South Kivu province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
(DRC), results in severe outcomes. The domestic abuse that is directed towards
women in this province is shocking and unreported, so much so that it has
become the tradition of the whole country as well as its provinces, including
South Kivu. Based on the writings of Mirindi (2007:54), we learn that Gender
Based Violence (GBV), in its form called domestic violence, remains widely
undocumented because most of the victims, who are women, are reluctant to tell
of the abuse they experienced in their homes. Congruent with Hatari (1999:98),
the household members who are abused cannot report the assault since they are
scared of the imminent reprisal of the abusers and fear to break social
traditions. This implies that the victim will not be supported by the social
justice in place. In other words, the abuser will not be sanctioned as the
justice system in this area believes this is a domestic issue that concerns the
couple and therefore, not a crime. However, Strongman cited in Mirindi
(2007:63), concludes that South Kivu domestic violence towards women alone
covers 12% of the abuses that are committed against people countrywide and 92%
of the abusers are men responsible for households.
The prevalence of domestic violence infers that any person in
the home may either perpetrate or suffer it; but in most cases husbands are to
blame (Boonzaier, 2008:67). Despite this opinion, some women abusers exist,
though in small numbers, who assault their husbands and other members of the
family.
Many writers have investigated the kinds of violence men cause
women in the home, but fewer have dealt with men's beliefs and attitudes
regarding domestic violence in South Kivu (Hatari, 1999:103). This indicates
the clearly disparate balance of social power between men and women, and the
unfair social power depicts men's domination in households and the development
of social behaviours. According to Leonard and Quigley (1999:78), men acquire
and strengthen behaviours in order to endow themselves with defensive arguments
for their abusive manners. It is in this context that GBV is fostered in order
to hinder the rights of the victims.
The DRC so called liberation war of 1996 was headed by the
former president Laurent Désiré Kabila. In 2001, he was
assassinated and his son Joseph Kabila succeeded him. As these wars have never
stopped during both regimes, their atrocities grew in the context of
violence.
People have been killed, others taken hostages;
infrastructures looted if not destroyed or burned and the ecosystem immensely
devastated. These wars' aftermaths were odious and the most serious one that is
still prevalent in the country is the problem of GBV. As for Cherie (2006), the
`consequences of these wars mostly affected the eastern province: at least
40,000 female civilians have been raped over the past ten years that the DRC
conflict lasted'.
Although the above figure represents the whole country, the
United Nations reports 27,000 sexual assaults in South Kivu province alone
(UNAIDS, 2005-2006). This situation depicts how GBV is used as a weapon of
women destruction; it is used to destroy the social fabric that women work
tirelessly to maintain. Besides, UNFPA (2006) reveals that more than half a
million of women have been raped; thus the DRC becomes the capital of rape on
the planet and leading to the most horrendous rape of the world. As a result,
Barron (1990:104) describes how women were publicly and atrociously gang raped
and had bayonets inserted into their genitals. The same writer reveals that
`many more others have had guns shot inside them, destroying their lower
bodies, mutilated and gravely wounded'. Even baby girls have never been safe
with this violence; they also have been raped pitilessly. The victims of these
atrocities suffered tremendously physical and psychological wounds. Although
formally the warfare ended in 2003, violence and particularly GBV continued in
the eastern part of the country.
Looking at the risks of GBV, the facts are persuasive.
Research conducted by UNAIDS (2007) show that there is a direct link between
DRC conflict and GBV. This said, women and girls who were raped got unwanted
pregnancies, contaminated HIV, were vaginally wounded and suffered
psychological trauma. According to Hatari (1999:32), in South Kivu alone, HIV
infection among females who are victims of GBV is up to three times higher if
compared to
women and girls who have not been subjected to aggressive
behaviours. In addition, some men benefited of the situation of war to apply
GBV in their homes. Ongala (1993:51) confirms that the DRC conflict has
affected households as women who were raped were repudiated by their husbands.
Other women who were gang raped several times could not return to their
families once they have been released by the rapists for fear of shame and
social blame.
The present research centres on the beliefs and attitudes of
carefully selected groups of men in order to learn more about the issue of
domestic violence against women in South Kivu. For men, the culture of domestic
violence greatly favours them in asserting power in their households. Since
most men have control of everything that happens in their households, Barron
(1990:97) notes that significant progress of scaling down domestic abuse can
take place only if their beliefs and attitudes are taken into consideration;
this particularly concerns men's opinions about the steps to take in order to
bring peace in the homes, which is a good reason for eschewing domestic
violence. The subsection below concisely presents the South Kivu province to
the reader.
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