Statement of the Problem
Due to his high touristic potential and capacity, US Tourism and
Hospitality represents a fast growing sector of the economy. All over the
world, The United States of America represents an important attractive
destination for many tourists who still considered this country as a world
prototype; consequently, the high demand has been increasing from one year to
another. This strategic sector however, still has to deal with the natural
phenomenon of climate and weather. Thus, as part of US natural resource, this
problem of climatic change appears as a great challenge that even the evolution
of the technology doesn't seem to solve. As a result, US Tourism and
Hospitality flow still has to interact with this issue which is still
considered as one of the strongest indicator of Tourism and Hospitality
activities. Like poverty or criminality, the phenomenon of the influence of
climate change on Hospitality and Tourism remains a critical issue for the
world community and particularly for US economy where, this industry has become
victim and dependant of climate change.
Research Questions
1- Doest the climate change really affects negatively
Hospitality and Tourism in US?
2-To what extend does it impact the Tourism and Hospitality
flow?
3-What are the area of this industry more affected and is there a
hope for tomorrow?
Significance of the Study
In US, Hospitality and Tourism represents a vital resource for
its economy. With the globalization, people should
increase their awareness of the impact of some factors
such as climatic change, which can really affect this
industry with a wide range of consequences. By focusing attention on
this aspect of problem, we're trying as far as possible to stimulate a dialogue
among Hospitality and Tourism professionals in US in particular and all over
the world in general. The study emphasizes also the need to further research on
this aspect of the problem. This sector is still viewed in US , as well as in
many part of the world as a business in which community, privates and publics
organizations can choose to get involved, that's why the present study
appears as a strategic business planning and market orientation for
those who are managing and coordinating Hospitality and Tourism-related
activities. Finally, all tourists world wide are also interested by this
study which provides a standardized climatic information's to assist choice
on where and when to go for holidays, and what to expect (rain, thermal
condition, snow, sunshine).
Research Design and Methodology
To conduct this analysis on the impact of climate change on
Hospitality and Tourism in US, the main approach used includes a content
analysis. Some research materials have been collected in library as well as in
internet.
The exploitation of available data found both online and in
the library has been very helpful to conduct such a problem analysis. This
method used was highly relevant to learn more efficiently about this issue.
Organization of the Study
As it has been illustrated in the proceedings pages, this
study points out how important the Tourism an Hospitality industry as become
very important in US and in many part of the world. The important growth in
this sector projected this sector to be one of the most important in the
International Economy. However, this activity still face a great challenge as
a result of natural factor such as climate change , which is still affecting
the industry and tends to make it seasonal . Considered as a strategic
touristic land with it high touristic potential, US still
has to deal with the phenomenon of climatic change . From the content
analysis method used, it has been noticed the insufficiency of research studies
relating to this aspect of the problem, even though some researches have
started to emerge. By revising such a topic, the hope is to highlight all the
different actors of the field, both from public and private sector about the
importance of the issue. Hopefully the present study will also make a
contribution in academia to advancing the researches in that particular aspect
of the problem, which appears more critical for Tourism and Hospitality sector
and for international business in general.
The second aspect of this study presents a review of relevant and
abundant literature on the issue of the conflictual relationship between
climate change and Hospitality/tourism sector. It also discusses the
multidimensional way climate changes impact tourism, today and probably
tomorrow and some adaptative strategies. By reviewing and discussing such
impacts, the hope is that this study as many others become a guideline for all
Tourism and hospitality professional as well as tourists worldwide.
CHAPTER II THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE
General impacts of climate change on Hospitality and
Tourism in US and adaptatives strategies to tackle the issue
The present study of the impact of climate change on
Hospitality and Tourism in US , appears as one of the most critical
concern of our century due to the importance of this sector to the American
and world's economy. Either these impacts can be view as positive or
negative, direct or indirect, quantitative or qualitative, a wide range of
studies strongly agree that climate change really influence Hospitality and
Tourism sector everywhere. The degree of interest toward this particular
concern has generated an important literature, shared between five different
branches. Firstly, there are a few studies (e.g. Madddison 2001) that built a
statistical model of the behavior of certain groups of tourists as a function
of weather and climate. Secondly, there are few studies (e.g. Abegg, 1996) that
relate the fates of particular touristic destinations to climate change. The
third branch of studies, (e.g. Matzarakis, 2002) defines some indicators of
attractiveness of certain weather conditions to tourists. Fourthly, there are
few studies, (e.g. Hamilton et al. 2003) that use «simulation models»
of the tourism sector to study the impact of climate change on tourist flows.
Finally a handful of studies (e.g., Berritella et
al., 2004) analyze the economic impact of the climate change on
tourism.
Prior to the discussion of the abundant literature on various
aspect of the impact of climate change on the pattern of Hospitality and
Tourism flow and how tourist behavior might change as a result of changing
weather scenarios, it is first necessary to review and summarize the
significance of this essential sector on the world's and the American's
economy.
It is generally admitted that many part of our lives are
influenced by the weather and climate, from the crops we grow to the social
activities we engage in, particularly in Hospitality and Tourism sector. Here,
the natural environment and climate conditions are very important factors
which determine the attractiveness of a region as a touristic or a holiday
destination. As it explain by Ghislaine Dubois(1995) a climate adequate for
tourism should provide both safety because its very important that tourist be
sheltered on from climatic accident and natural catastrophe which they
generate. Adequate climate for tourism should also provide amenities, which
include sunshine, absence of frequency rainfall, a minimum of comfort
(acceptable temperature for example) and a minimization of health risk
associated to climate. Talking about health risk associate to climate, it is
known that the exhibition of sunrays can cause skin cancer, as well as
association of cool temperature and violent winds can increase the risk of
heard attacks; and those moist winds increases cerebral and vascular accident
frequency; so, over-heated summers and more disturbed winters are not welcome.
Some categories of population are particularly concerned (Young children and
old person).Talking about how the climate can affect tourists behaviors,
Besancenot (1989:40) recalls that 20-30%of emergency return home by tourists
originate from climate aggression, even though the sanitary level of the
country can also affect tourists behavior(mosquitoes, yellow fever, dandy
fever...)
In US, people all aver the year choose to move from one State
to another for holidays according to the weather conditions. This shows how
climate change can really affects Tourism/Hospitality activity, particularly in
the later stage of the twentieth century where holidays have become an
essential part of our lives, accounting for one of the most costly items of
expenditure. As International Tourism has become one of the most important and
rapidly growing services industries in the world, it continued success is
closely and symbiotically related to some environmental factors. Many experts
claim that the touristic industry now involved more people and more money than
any other industry on earth. Although this claim may be arguable, tourism is
becoming increasingly vital in the economy of many countries.
Discussing about this sector growth, the World Tourism
Organization forecasts that international arrivals will increase from 594
million in 1996 to 1600 million in 2020 with a growth from $621 billion by 2000
to $1.5 trillion by 2010. Thomas S. Powers (1978) discuss the economic
significance of American Tourism, and according to this author, in 1972,
Tourism expenditures climbed above $60 billion. The Travel Data Center strongly
agrees with this opinion and points out that in US, for every dollar spent in
the nation's grocery store, 66cents is spent on tourism. In eight
States-California, Florida, New York, Texas , Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan
and Ohio, Hospitality and Tourism expenditures have passed the billions
dollars mark. Also, in three States-Florida, Nevada and Hawaii, Tourism is the
principal industry. As international Tourism is now one of the fastest growing
components of International Trade, the United States represents an
international tourism attraction. Travel expenditure made in this country by
tourists have been growing at an annual rate of almost 14 percent in recent
years while the number of actual visitors has grown by 9.5percent, so the
United States' travel receipts and arrivals has being increasing more rapidly
than the total world trade rate. The United States Travel Service, which has
been establish especially to attract traveler to America, states that
Tourism/Hospitality was the major export industry, accounting for 4.9
percent of all United States export in 1974. The World Tourism Organization
(2002) recognizes the importance of American tourism and its strong domestic
touristic market. Instead of this high tourism potential, it is generally
accepted that climate remains an important factor of the regions tourism
resource base. It is assume that various place in the world have a tourism
potential, however, there is also weather and climate sets limits; for example
tourism administrators do not promote places with a little potential, as this
would not be profitable. On the other hand, tourists who choose to visit such
places would suffer inconvenience (transport costs discomfort,) financial loose
can also result from weather variation and change as discussed by De
Freitas(1984)
Economic impacts of climate change on Hospitality and
Tourism industry
If a handful of studies focus on the economic implication of
climate change on Hospitality and Tourism, it is probably because of the
previewed economic significance of this sector which according to Graham &
Todd (2003) is the second largest sector in the economy and remains the largest
employer in the US, providing 14,4million jobs annually. In addition, in some
American states such as Florida Tourism remains the biggest industry. A wide
range of findings, Witt and Witt (1995) and Lim (1995) shows that the demand
forecasting, in the majority of studies, is focused on economic factors. This
is the idea defended by Barritella et al (2004) who concludes that many studies
analyze the economic implication of the climate change on Hospitality and
Tourism. This might be probably because before being an attraction, tourism is
a business. By discussing the problem of economic impact of climate change on
tourism, Sutcliffe & Sinclair (1980) point out the idea that economic
impact of climate change on Tourism relates mostly to problems in the off-peak
period, particularly the lost of profit due to the inefficient use of resources
and facilities. This argument is approved respectively by Manning and Powers
(1984); William and Shaw (1991) that finally make tourism and hospitality a
seasonal activity, consequently, the negative effects of climate change may
lead to a shortage of hotels rooms in peak- season, and the creation of excess
capacity can have economically disastrous effects. The underutilization of
facilities in the off- peak season along with greatly reduced revenues is
inevitable, because the majority of the capital assets are inflexible as they
have not many alternative uses. This is the view of Mathieson and wall (1982).
Even though some companies in the service accommodation sector close during
the off-pick season, many must remain open to obtain sufficient income in order
to cover their fixed costs, which represent a large proportion of the total
cost. The economic impact is not only negative as it is state by Grant and
Human (1997) who outline some potential positive economic impact of climate
change on Tourism and Hospitality. For example, maintenance work on building or
attractions is typically scheduled for the off -peak period and supports
construction jobs and specialists trade.
According to Murphy1985, up - market hotels in the serviced
accommodation sector have been very successful in attaining usage efficiently.
These hotels are generally committed to open all year round for business in
order to keep their highly skill staff. This is achieved by making concessions
to attract off-peak season trade, such as reduced rate to the business sector
to try to attract business travelers during the week, and off - peak season
rates, and get away specialist as insensitive to the public to visit during the
week ends as well as their continued activities with coach tours. In contract
small guesthouses and family own often have little or no motivation to
generate business in the off- pick season Murphy (1985). As result, he suggests
a strategy stating that business and the community need to attain sufficient
revenues from a few hectic weeks in the summer in order to ensure success for
the whole year.
About the economic impact of climate change on
Tourism/Hospitality in US, Hostelling, a Harvard economist uses a Travel Cost
Model, developed in the late 1940s, (TC), to emphasize this idea. This model is
used in order to calculate the value of the United States parks in monetary
terms. Hostel ling's final idea is that the costs that people incur travelling
to a site reflects their willingness to pay for recreational experience at that
site. As travel costs increase and therefore the price of the visit as a result
of climate change, the number of trip will decrease. This theory has been
explored and applied in touristic demand estimation by Sutherland(1982) ,
Park et al (2002), Morey et al.,(2002), Hesseln et al.(2003) . Another economic
impact of climate change in Hospitality and Tourism is analyzed on nature-based
tourism, which is an important component of American Tourism. A study by
Eagles et al (2000) estimates the visitation to park and protected area over
2.6 billion visitors' a day. Moving along the same idea, Scott and Mc Boyle
(2001), use another theory, the «Tourism Climate Index» to find that
the length and quality of summer tourism season would improve markedly under
climate change; consequently, changes in visitors numbers and seasonal
visitation pattern appears very important for park revenue and the economy of
nearby communities.
In US, Tourism/Hospitality activity has to accommodate with
different seasons. For example, winter tourism is recognized as potentially
vulnerable to global climate change and the ski industry is one of the
particular focuses. D. Scott (2003) discusses the economical impact of climate
change in winter tourism. In US, as snow remains the main element for winter-
tourism used for some sport tourism such as skiing, snowmobile, a lack of snow
as a result of climate change calls news financial adaptation strategy such as
snowmaking. Scott et al. was the first study to examine this strategy in 2002.
In another study carried out in 2003, he pointed out the idea that the
additional snowmaking requirement and greater energy required to make snow in
warmer average temperatures would represent an important economic cost increase
that could affect the profitability of some ski area.
Beside the thesis of negative and positive economic impact of
climate change on Hospitality and tourism, a recent study by Barritella et al(
2004) demonstrates how tourism, economic impact and climate change are
represented as two additives shocks. Firstly there is a transfer of income
from the country that received fewer tourists to those that received more as
US. Secondly, there is a shift in demand as consumers behave differently while
on holiday. His final conclusion is that global impact can be negligible.
If the growth of tourism sector relies on climate, consequently
climate change can have some environmental consequences.
Environmental impacts.
Among the five branches of literature on the impact of climate
change on Hospitality and Tourism, there are few studies such as Abbegs (1996)
which relate the fates of particular tourist destination to climate change.
Ecological impacts are largely synonymous with the negative effects occurring
due to the concentration of visitors during the peak season at a destination.
This includes for example, congested rural lanes, disturbance of wild life, and
physical erosion of footpath sand litter problems.
Manning and Powers (1984) emphasize the
strain of tourism activities on the ecological carrying capacity of a
particular destination, due to the heavy usage of the peak- season. A study by
Butler 1994 points out that the intensity of the pressure on often fragile
environments caused by overcrowding and over use during the summer is often
cited as one of the main environmental problem of tourism seasonality; however,
he argues that areas with high pick usage may be in the long run better off
than having the use spread more evenly throughout the year. A similar view is`
taken by Hartman, who states that the `lengthy of «dead season» is
the only chance for the ecological and social environment to recover fully. In
a study of theory, concept and methods in Tourism Climate Research, C.R de
Freitas 1990 concludes that Human response to climate is largely a matter of
perception, with the exception of the thermal component. He points out the idea
that some climate variables are entirely physical (e.g. rain), some are
physiological, (e.g. temperature), while some are simply psychological, (e.g.
clear blue sky) and some the combination of all the three. A large branch of
the literature singles out the thermal component of the climate impact on
tourism as the most important. Therefore, the relationship between atmospheric
environment and enjoyable of outdoor touristic activity may be seen to be a
function of facets of on-site atmospheric conditions.
For example, meteorological element such as rain and high wind
can directly or indirectly affect tourist's satisfaction and causing some
inconvenience. Other things that fall into ecological impact are rain
(duration), rain days (frequency), ice, snow, severe weather, air quality and
ultraviolet radiation. As a result of his research, De Freitas (1990)
concludes that thermal component is a main factor determining the desirability
of weather. Certain behavioral adjustments (use of shade umbrellas, windbreaks
and possibly increase or decrease of swims) serve to reduce the beach user's
sensitivity to on-site atmospheric conditions which can indirectly have some
socio cultural effects
Socio- cultural impact of climate change
Climate change makes Hospitality and Tourism seasonal with a wide
range of consequences, so the socio- cultural impacts includes not only
variation on the host community but also on the visitors. In USA, these impacts
are view and analyze on local community. Problems for local people include for
example, crowded street, hotels saturation, slow traffic, lack of parking,
increase on the cost of community services due to dramatic increase in
population during summer months, which place a strain on regular infrastructure
and services. In an amazing study carried by Mathieson and Wall
(1982 ) , the attention is draw on the link between tourism,
climate change and increased crime due to the higher number of people present
all over the American cities during the peak- season. A similar argumentation
is developed by Murphy (1985) who states that in such a situation, extra
facilities are required , extra police, sanitary, heath and park personnel
have to be hired during the tourist peak season so that levels of services may
be maintained. Other social impacts are related to higher prices during the
peak season, and increase risk of accidents. Manning and Powers (1984) regard
these problems as a strain on the social carrying capacity on the destination
which might result in resentment from the local communities.
Some positives impacts on hospitality and tourism due to climate
change are analyzed however in a study by Murphy 1985 which relates that for
some communities, «the lull before and after storm» helps to make the
season more bearable and the industry tolerable. Many residents only make full
use of local amenities and facilities in the off- peak period. Even though the
concentration of activities during the peak-season produces similar effects to
tourists themselves, theses impacts have been largely neglected by many
researchers.
If visitor's enjoyment might be reduced due to the overcrowding
of attraction sites and the lack of capabilities during the peak demand
periods, in contrast, in off peak season, many facilities might be closed and
the full range of services may not be available.
The closure, delay, or cancellation of tourism attractions as a
result of climate do not only affects potentials visitors, but also can lower
the reputation of the overall image of a destination. Climate change also
impact hospitality and tourism employment. Recover (2000) explores the factor
responsible for the numerical flexibility in the hotel labor force and attempt
to identify the adjustment mechanism between employment and tourism demand.
The most important issue in relation of climate change impact on hospitality
and tourism remains the difficulty of recruiting and maintaining full time
staff as it was said by Yacoumis (1980.) The socio cultural impact of climate
changes on hospitality and tourism in outdoor activities especially on
outdoor recreation and sport tourism. Since most these activities take place
outdoor, they are subject to the possibly disruption, delay, postponement or
cancellation due to adverse weather. In such activities, climatic conditions
can affect the enjoyment and safety of the participants.
For example, forecasts of bad weather make many less committed
fans reluctant to watch an event in an open stadium or uncovered stands. In
addition quality of play can be diminished by bad weather on the playing field.
Finally, the multidimensional impact of climate change tend to endangered the
Hospitality and Tourism sector , so some global strategies appears very
important to save this crucial sector of American and International economy
Some Global strategies
As a natural phenomenon, the problem of climate change which can
be expanded beyond the borders appears as a global issue. Consequently, one
of the main strategy is to pay a global attention on it .So, in recognizing
the high dependence of Tourism on climate conditions, and the high
vulnerability of many destinations to climate change impacts, the World Tourism
Organization made an important initial step to address the complex relations
between climate change and tourism by convening the first International
Conference on Climate Change and Tourism in Djerba (Tunisia) in 2003. With
this Declaration, there is basic framework for further action. In brief this
Declaration marks an important stage in establishing that serious international
attention, under the leadership of the World Tourism Organization (WTO), is now
being paid to this subject. As this conference raises the awareness of the
inter-relationship between tourism and climate change, it emphasizes some
serious concerns arose in the area
First the need for a clear communication on the subject in order
that tourism industry interest can see the potential implication for their
sector. Next, to understand that raising the industry's awareness is a global
issue, since almost every country has a tourism sector which is for importance
in its national economy and has important inter-sectoral linkages. It will be
important to ensure that tourism authorities and governments understand how
their own industry and economy may be affected vis-à-vis their current
potential competitors. And then, it was acknowledged that, in raising the
industry awareness, some actions need to be taken to deal with the time scale
involved. But it is important to recognize` that tourism activities have it own
responsibility on the event of climate change, particularly on pollution which
covers all aspect of the tourism activities. This was recently agree by Sarah
Nicholls (2006), who states that tourism activity is itself a contributor to
the problem of climate change due to it dependency on fossil fuel consumption.
So, enforcing the principle of `polluter pays' is important as a global
strategy. On his final section, the Djerba Declaration shows it, even though
no specific calls for action emerged. However, the conference focused on the
key co-coordinating role wich the World Tourism Organization should take in
future. The suggestion is that the WTO should act as a clearing house for
information on the subject. As the Djerba declaration makes clear, the WTO
should be kept informed of all relevant studies and pilots projects, and should
build a database of best international practice. these research should be use
to develop a blue print for monitoring the effects of climate change on
tourism.wto should disseminate this blue print to all interested parties in
order to facilitate the planning of adaptation measure in future
Future paths and expectations
The main limitation of forecasting the impact of
climate change on hospitality and tourism either in US or elsewhere is the
remaining uncertainty on the extend of global warming and also its local
effects. Future researches are hopefully expected to provide more details.
However, it is already important to analyze the potential effects since the
time of response of the tourism industry to environmental change is directly
related to the life time cycle of the tourism product (20-30years). The first
message to be addressed to tourism stakeholders is that in the three or four
coming decades, climate change will seriously impacts on tourism, sometimes
dramatically. But it is still impossible to predict what will really happen, so
the most adapted technique to forward the message seems to be the development
of contrasted scenarios, so that the operators can benchmark expected effects
of climate change. The main policy question that follows is what has to be done
in such a context of uncertainty? Jean-Paul Ceron and Ghislaine Dubois (1995)
analyze three options: Either to wait until the level of knowledge increases
due to the fact that short terms responses should be more efficient than long
term precautionary measures. But due to the rigidity of tourism supply and the
irreversibility of environmental process involved, this option might involved
a high level of risk, and long-term cost might exceed short - term benefit. The
second option discussed should be to trust the ability of technology to face
environmental change. This option can be limited by two arguments:The first is
environmental; an increased artificialisation of tourism, favored by the
evolution of technology will undoubtedly increase the impact of tourism on
natural environment, energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission. The
response would indirectly increase the problem. However, it is not certain that
tourism operators might be sensitive to this environemental argument which is
an externality of the tourism business.
The second argument is economic; the capitalistic intensity of
tourism sector is dramatically increasing in industrialized countries such as
US. The profitability of tourism sector already quiet low is likely to decrease
with these additional investments. For example in France, the majority of ski
resorts have never been and will probably never be profitable, they are
strongly indebted and have to be supported by publics institutions, which might
be reluctant in the near future to go on wasting money in such an uncertain
business
The last option discussed could be a precautionary attitude which
would encourage flexibility of tourism and improve it delays of response to
climate change. For example developing off-ski activities in ski resorts could
be more sensible and constitute better insurance for future than investing in
artificial snow cover, which will never replace a white natural mountain in
winter. In that perspective, climate change responses can be integrated in a
broader risk management policy of the tourism sector. In addition, promoting
high quality campsites and light accommodation, developing hotels which can be
easily transformed in mains residences drive the situation more reversible.
Climatic uncertainty should be introduced into evaluation criteria of the
opportunity of tourism investment.
Conclusion
As it has been illustrated in the proceedings pages, the impact
of climate change on Hospitality and tourism appears as an extensive ,
multi-faced and multidimensional subject area which has received and will
probably continued to receive a great deal of attention due to it importance ,
especially in recent years.
All over the findings, it is by no means original to recall that
hospitality and tourism, be it in US or elsewhere is strongly conditioned by
climate. The phenomenon of climatic change due to greenhouse effect appears
as one of the greatest challenge of our century and could positively or
aversively affects one of the major activities of the national and
international economy. If some adaptative strategies are continue to be carry
out with the evolution of the technology, the cost remains a great deal and
sometimes this adaptative strategies can harm the environment with others
consequences
As a natural phenomenon, the future can still predict continuous
impact and the only hope is that this would not totally impact the growth of
this sector which also impacts the climate.
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