Gaston Berger University of Saint -Louis Faculty of Arts and
Humanities English Department Master 1
Topic:
The Influence of Djola Eegimaa on French
in
Senegal
OPTION: LINGUISTICS / GRAMMAR
PRESENTED BY: SUPERVISOR:
Sébastien TENDENG Pr Mawéja
MBAYA
ACADEMIC YEAR 2007-2008
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ..3
Acknowledgements 4
List of Charts, Maps, Tables and Appendices 5
List of Codes and Abbreviations 6
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 7
Chapter One: BACKGROUNDS 11
Eegimaa in Casamance 12
French in Casamance 14
Chapter Two: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 16
Eegimaa Description 17
French Description 19
Languages in Contact 21
Review of Related Literature 23
Chapter Three: THE FIELDWORK 26
The Field of Research 27
The Research Population 27
The Sample 28
Tools of Investigation 28
Chapter Four: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
29
The Corpus Presentation 30
Morphophonological Analysis 34
Reporting the Findings 43
GENERAL CONCLUSION 44
BIBLIOGRAPHY 46
APPENDICES 49
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to:
my dear parents Fidele, Rosalie Bassène and all my
brothers and sisters. for their cherishing love and constant concern for my
success. Boundless thanks for all.
and
Patrick COLY (1979-2005) who did not have the chance to
defend his Master dissertation. He was tak en away from our affection by the
suddenness of death. May God, Lord of peace and forgiveness welcome him in His
Holy Paradise.
Amen.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
«The Lord is my shepherd; I have everything I need.
He lets me rest infields of green grass and leads me to quite pools offresh
water». Psalm 23:1-2
My first thanks go to my dear parents Fidéle and
Rosalie Bassène for their cherishing love and constant concern for my
success and to my uncle and godfather Léon Bassène for all those
years spent under his shelter. Boundless thanks for all.
My special thanks go to Professor Mawéja Mbaya for
accepting to supervise this work. He has made numerous proposals for
improvement; both in regard to the overall structure of the work and to
countless details, and have painstakingly read through the various drafts from
the proposal.
I owe also a very special debt of gratitude to all my
professors at Gaston Berger University: Dr Abdoulaye Barry for his useful
linguistic classes, Dr Omar Fall for his fruitful grammar courses, Pr
Baydallaye Kane, Dr Badara Sall and all the others who, from the first year
were always present.
The following relatives, friends and colleagues have read the
whole or substantial parts of the manuscript in various stages and have made
valuable suggestions: Pr Pierre Marie Sambou, Dr Serge Sagna and Dr
Alain-Christian Bassène for their continuous support and invaluable
advice through all the stages of my writing, Michel Mbodji, Cécilia
Faye, Carmen Ndour and all the members of the «Gadiaga
Family».
Thanks are also due to Etienne Bassène and Louis Eketbo
Bassène who provided me with valuable information on Eegimaa people and
their culture.
I am much indebted to the people at the CEM of Enampor for all
their support and constant availability. My heartfelt thanks also go to all
those who have helped in the fieldwork: Rolande Virginie Sagna, Amiral
Bassène, Thibaut Bassène and all the members of A.E.R.M.A
(U.C.A.D/Dakar).
Last but not least, my special thanks go to my roommates
Joseph Senghor and my cousin and brother Pierre Bassène, with whom I
shared years of peaceful neighbouring. My thanks also go to Jules Francois
Diatta who has been a constant source of encouragement.
All my classmates (The Class 2003-2004) and the residents of
G7G and G7E are associated with these thanks all without any exception and all
those who knowingly or otherwise have contributed in making this work what it
is.
LIST OF CHARTS, MAPS,
TABLES
AND APPENDICES
Charts
Chart 1: Classification of the Djola group languages 9
Maps
Map 1: The location of Mof çvi within Senegal 10
Map 2: The Eegimaa speaking area 10
Map 3: The migration from Burofay towards Mof çvi 13
Tables
Table 1: Eegimaa phonological consonants 17
Table 2: Eegimaa phonological vowels 18
Table 3: IPA chart for French consonants 19
Table 4: French phonological vowels 20
Table 5: Age of the informants 32
Table 6: Sex of the informants 32
Table 7: Level of study of the informants 32
Table 8: Languages spoken by the informants 33
Table 9: Mastery of Eegimaa 33
Appendices
Appendix 1: Portrait of Affiledjo Manga the last
«king-priest-of-the-rain» 49
Appendix 2: Questionnaire 50
Appendix 3: List of the informants 51
List of codes and
abbreviations
(=) : means «corresponds»
: means «becomes»
[+ATR] : Advance d Tongue
Root [-ATR] : Non-Advanced
Tongue Root
A.E.R.M.A : Association des Etudiants Ressortissants de
Mof çviA.N.S : Archives Nationales du Sénégal (National
Archives of Senegal)
Aff. : Affix
C : Consonant
I.P.A : International Phonetic Alphabet
L1 : First language
L2 : Second language
× : means «nothing»
Rad. : Radical
Suff. : Suffix
U.C.A.D : Université
Cheikh Anta Diop (University
of Dakar) V : Vowel
+v : Voiced
-v : Voiceless
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Djola is a linguistic unit which, with Mandjako, Mankagna and
Balanta, constitutes the Bak sub-group of the West-Atlantic group, which
belongs to the great Niger-Congo family. It was classified in the West-Atlantic
group by Westermann and J. H. Greenberg . But French linguists Delafosse and
Lavergne de Tressan classified Djola
1
in what they called the Senegalo -Guinean group . The
classification of Greenberg, until now up to date, is the one retained for this
research work.
Djola is spoken in The Gambia, Senegal and Guinea-Bissau. It
is the language of the Djola people who occupy the area which extends on these
three countries. All over this linguistic shelf, Djola is respectively in
contact with English, French, Portuguese and other local languages.
Basing ourselves on the truism according to which when one or
more languages are in contact, they influence one another, we have chosen to
work on the influence of Djola on French in Senegal. In one word, this work
will be concerned with the study of the influence of a national language,
namely Djola, on the official one, French, in Senegal.
Senegal is a linguistic shelf where many languages are in
contact. From this contact arises the phenomenon of mutual-influence but we
will concentrate our work more on the study of the influence of Djola on French
than the contrary.
The Djola language, according to Sambou (1979), comprises
around fifteen dialects2. Among this set of dialects, our choice
laid on that commonly known as «Eegimaa». This choice is
justified by the fact that these people were in early contact with the
colonizers and that's the same for their language. Another reason is that their
location is very enclosed and thus less exposed to the phenomenon of
Wolofisation.
The dialect was variously named by the linguists who worked on
it: Palmeri called it Bandial, Doneux, Gusilay, while Odile
Tendeng, a native speaker, labeled it Endungo at the end of a long
term investigation.
To find a name in which all the speakers of the linguistically
delimited entity would recognize themselves, such was one of the concerns which
animated the researchers. In spite of the provided efforts, it appears today
that these denominations do
1 Pierre-Marie Sambou. 1979. Ç Djola Kaasaa
Esuulaalur: Phonologie, Morphophonologie et
Morphologie È. Thèse de de 3 ème
doctorat cycle, Dakar: Université de Dakar, Page 4
2 Refer to Chart 1, page 3 .
Bayot group Proper Djola
not cover the whole of the speech community, certain villages
feeling indicated by none of the three names. In order to answer this concern,
the name Eegimaa was selected designating the people of this
dialect.
Indeed, to be distinguished from other Djola people, the
native speakers call themselves: «ájoola eegimaa»,
which means: a Djola who uses the expression
«eegimaa» to say: «here is what I say to you ".
And this expression is very recurrent in the speech of this community.
Apart from these authors, we can find other people naming it «Djola
Essil» or even people from that area calling it
«Guláay» or «Gujólay
gamoyen».
In front of this situation of uncertainty, we have chosen to
label it «Eegimaa» because it is the one mostly used in the
academic sphere (Bassène 2001 and Bassène 2003) and we would not
depart from the rule. Even for the spelling of the word «Djola»
itself, we noticed many types (Diola, Dyola, Jóola and Jola), but we
will use «Djola» in this work.
We found an interest on this topic and it lays on the fact
that not only it is one in which we will be pioneers on researching and
findings from this work will be original ones but also because it will allow us
to study the contact between local and official languages in a multilingual
context.
To bring a true contribution to the present field of language
contact in multilingual societies, we have conducted a fieldwork in which we
tried to bring as much reliable data as possible. We went to
«Mofçvi3» in the department of Ziguinchor,
to Dakar and Saint-Louis where we found a high concentration of Eegimaa
people.
To collect these data, we proceeded by means of a
questionnaire in which people were asked to give their identification (names,
age, sex, address and country of birth) and also answered a limited set of
questions such as their mother tongue, other languages they speak or understand
and their level of study4 etc.
Apart from the questionnaire, we observed people speaking and
chose a sample of fifty persons (twenty five [25] from Ziguinchor and the
remaining 25 others from Dakar and Saint-Louis) whom we interviewed by means of
a voice recorder. The people interviewed were all native speakers of Eegimaa
aged between 15 and 66. All of them went to school for at least 7 years.
3 «Mof» is the word for land, soil
and «ávi» stands for both King and
hundred or cent franc CFA but here, it is for the first
meaning that prevails. Thus «Mof çvi» means the king's
land and is the original location of the Eegimaa people (for more information
see Map 1 and 2, page 4).
4 For more details see Appendix 2: Questionnaire, page
44.
This work will be divided into four main chapters. In Chapter
One, we will present these two languages giving their historical background in
the field of research. Then in Chapter Two, we will give a theoretical approach
concerning the description of the two languages of our study, all the theories
about languages in contact and the inventory of works related in some way or
other to ours. In Chapter Three, we will present the fieldwork and show in what
way we have conducted the data collec tion. And at last, in Chapter Four, we
will analyze the data we gathered during the fieldwork before giving the
findings and then conclude.
Chart 1: Classification of the Djola
group languages (ÒBAKÓ LANGUAGES
SUBDIVISION: Djola group)
DJOLA GROUP
Karone group Kwataay group Central Djola
Fogny group Kaassa group Ejamat group Gusilay group
*Fogny *Huluf *Ejamat *Gusilay
*Eegimaa
*Buluf *Ayun *Her
*Kombo *Selek *Elun
*Narang *Esuulaalur
*Fluvial
*Bliss
SOURCE: Translation and adaptation from Hopkins 2005, page
7.
Map 1: Localisation of Mof çvi whithin
Senegal
SOURCE: Bassène, Mamadou.
2003, page3.
Map 2: The Eegimaa speaking area
SOURCE: Bassène, Mamadou.
2003, page3.
CHAPTER ONE
***
Backgrounds
1- EEGIMAA IN CASAMANCE
The history of the establishment of the Eegimaa people in Mof
çv' is partly based on mythical stories on the one hand and real facts
on the other.
Thus, according to legend, all ethnic groups of Senegal were
said to come from Mecca where, they originally all live in peace: Serer, Djola,
Fulani, Mandingo etc. But once came the day when they had to separate from each
other because it was said that they were cramped for room. So, they decided to
break into pieces the «big black stone» used in pagan rituals and
allegedly called in Arabic «siat». This same noun is found
in the Eegimaa language and is the plural form of the word
«eat» which is also a black stone but of an unsettled size.
This stone is buried in the shrines.
Always according to legend, the Eegimaa people sojourned a
long time in the ancient Kingdom of Gaabu with the Fulani and the Mandingo.
After their sojourn in the empire of Gaabu, the Djola left and
moved northward until they reached the present region of Casamance precisely in
a place called Burofay where they lived peacefully with their fellows the
Ba ·nouk for a long period of time.
But according to Palmeri, at a certain period of their
cohabitation, drought cropped up and life with their fellows Ba ·nouk
became harsh leading to internal fights between them. The Ba ·nouk left
Burofay and settled in Brin where they live still now. The Eegimaa people as to
them, stayed there for a while before a hunter named
Djiméguéré discovered the bed of a stream in a place
somewhere between Badiat and Badjokotong. Once back to Burofay, he told the
king about his discovery and the latter sent three other hunters one from each
of the three clans composing the kingdom. They went there, came back and
confirmed what was said previously.
All Eegimaa people left Burofay together under the king of
that time named Djimanga and went westward to join Essil5. In their
way, they stopped over at Gunih and waited for the king who left last bringing
with him the fetishes called Ufulung.
Once in Essil, which is the first village to be occupied
officially by the Eegimaa, the families began to spread out all around the new
lands. Thus, the Bassène stopped in Essil. The Jiben clan, composed by
different families: the Sagna, Manga, Sambou, Diatta and the Aghène
continued further and stopped in Enampor; while the Batendeng clan which was
the most numerous, occupied the villages of Séléki and
Gheubeul.
5 For more details, see Map 3: Migration from Burofay towards Mof
Ávi, page 7.
After a certain number of years spent in the newly discovered
lands, a quarrel broke out in the royal family of Enampor, which caused its
scission. This family broke up into two branches: the Manga remained in Enampor
and the Sagna took refuge in Essil carrying with them their respective
fetishes. From this moment on, the royalty belonged alternatively to Manga and
Sagna families and the "kings" are selected once in Enampor and the following
time in Essil.
This tradition of royalty in Mof Av' lived on until 1978 with the
death of Affilédio Manga6 the last
«king-priest-of-the-rain».
Map 3: Migration from Burofay towards
Mofçvi
SOURCE: Palmeri, Paolo. 1995, page 77.
7
2- FRENCH IN CASAMANCE
6 See Appendix 1: Affiledio Manga, the last
«king-priest-of-the-rain», page 43.
7 When writing this part, we mainly used researches by
Palmeri (1995: 128-140) from where is extracted the major part of the
historical quotations from the National Archives of Senegal.
In 1455, the Portuguese discovered the estuary of the river
populated by the Ba ·nouk on the right bank and the Floup on the left
one. The Venetian Alvise Da Cada Mosto, at the service of Portugal, baptized
this place Casamansa (Casa which stands for house or ownership and
Mansa for the name of the Floup's king of that time) which became
later Casamance.
One of the first official reports mentioning the contacts
between French settlers and the people of Mof ç vi stated the
destruction of Séléki in reprisals to an action of plundering
which the men of this village had carried out on Karabane in 1857.
th
In response, the French attacked and burned
Séléki on January 26 , 1859, (ANS, 1016,25)8 and to
conclude peace and put themselves under French protection, the village
committed themselves giving three heads of cattle (ANS, 1D16,54).
At the end of 1886, as he did not yet perceive any intention
on behalf of Djola to pay their debt, Lieutenant Truche decided to go to
Séléki, accompanied by a small escort and about fifty volunteers
of Karabane. After sailing up the Backwater of Gheubeul with a steam-driven
boat, the men disembarked close to the village carrying a cannon and some
grenades to intimidate the population.
But, once close to the first districts, they found armed
villagers awaiting them. Truche thought of having to face only the men of
Séléki but he was in fact, in front of the warriors of Enampor,
Etama, Gheubeul and those of Essil who surprised him in a heavy crossfire and
encircled him.
The soldiers panic-stricken, fled in all the directions and
Truche himself was wounded by a poisoned spear. Rather than to fall between the
hands of the enemy, he preferred to shoot himself in the head with the last
cartridge that remained to him, while
9
his men withdrew in disorder, leaving on the ground deaths of
thirteen people .
The French counterattack was quick. On January 5th,
1887 the "Aviso Poder" approached the banks of Séléki and
showered the village. The Djola people, too independent and not accustomed to
live under any kind of authority, rebelled once again against the French
settlers and attacked their fortified camp in Séléki during the
night on May 17th, 1906.
8 Archives
Nationales du Sénégal
(National Archives of
Senegal) the number is that of the bookshelf and the bar
code.
9 Christian Roche. 1976. Conquête et
Résistance des Peuples de Casamance. Dakar-Abidjan: Nouvelles Editions
Africaines. Page 185.
Djignabo Bassène, one of the most influential priests
of the Circumcision fetishes, accompanied by warriors such as Adjalubay,
Alandisso, Khulécho, Abekker and some other volunteers, was killed that
night. His death plunged the village in consternation and the following day,
the Elders resigned to the defeat and gave to the French eight heads of cattle.
At the end of that same day, almost all had finished paying the due tax.
CHAPTER TWO
***
Theoretical
Framework
1- EEGIMAA DESCRIPTION
The Eegimaa phonological system comprises 30 phonemes of which 20
consonants and 10 vowels10.
a- The Consonants
PLACE
MANNER
|
Labial
|
Alveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Plosive
|
+v
|
p
|
t
|
c
|
k
|
-v
|
b
|
d
|
j
|
g
|
Nasal
|
m
|
n
|
?
|
?
|
Fricative
|
+v
|
f
|
s
|
|
x
|
-v
|
v
|
|
|
|
Vibrant
|
|
r
|
|
|
Approximant
|
|
l
|
y
|
w
|
SOURCE: Bassène, Alain Christian. 2006, page 17.
Table 1: Eegimaa phonological consonants
The above phonological table was designed according to the
distributional theory. This theory classifies the phonemes of a language
according to the features which are present in all the allophones which realize
the same phoneme. However, we recognize that the application of this theory
poses problem when it comes to classify, in relevant features, the phonemes of
Eegimaa. Indeed, the term `plosive' cannot be appropriate, actually, to
classify the phonemes /p/, /b/, /c/ and /g/ because each of them have a plosive
and fricative allophone.
The term `obstruent' could have been used in replacement of
'plosive' while making modifications concerning the places of articulation i.e.
in classifying /p/ and /b/ in the
10 Alain Christian Bassène. 2006.
ÇDescription du Djola Banjal _ Sénégal
È, Lyon 2: Université Lumière, Thèse de
Doctorat. Page 34
`bilabials', /f/ and /v/ in the `labiodentals', /t/ and /d/in
the `apico -alveolars ' and /s/ in the `dorso-alveolar'. Unfortunately, a
problem will arise concerning the classification of the phonemes /k/, /x/ and
/g/ because the first two are all voiceless velar obstruents.
b- The vowels
The phonological vowels are 10. In the notation that we have
adopted for the phonological transcription, the non marked vowels (with no
accent) are the loose vowels (-ATR), while the marked vowels (provided
with an accent) are the tensed vowels (+ATR).
|
Tensed vowels
|
|
Loose vowels
|
Front
|
|
Back
|
Front
|
|
Back
|
'
|
|
iii
|
i
|
|
u
|
é
|
|
ó
|
e
|
|
o
|
|
á
|
|
a
|
SOURCE: Sambou, Pierre Marie. 1989 page 194.
Table 2: Eegimaa phonological vowels
11
The graphs used represent tensed
here vowels and loose vowels in a
transcription adapted from the I.P.A according to the
correspondence (=) below: tensed vowels: ' = i; é = e;
á= ??; ó = o;iii = u
loose vowels: i = I; e = ?; a = a; o = ?; u = ?
It is worth noting that, in Eegimaa, length is for all the vowels
12
phonemic and
for all the consonants except from /r/, /x/, /w/ which have only
one realization.
11 This terminology is borrowed from Sambou
(1989:192). The tensed vowel, unlike the loose one, is
realized with the root of the tongue advanced and is perceived bass and
dark.
2- FRENCH DESCRIPTION
This part of our work discusses the phonological system of
standard French based on the Parisian dialect. French is notable for its
uvular ?, nasal vowels, and two processes
affecting word-final sounds: liaison, wherein
word-final consonants are not pronounced unless followed by a word beginning
with a vowel; and elision, wherein a final vowel is elided
before vowel initial words.
a- The consonants
Where symbols for consonants occur in pairs, the one on the left
represents the voiceless consonant and that on the right, the voiced
consonant.
Place
Manner
|
Bi-labial
|
Labio- dental
|
Dental- Alveolar
|
Palato- alveolar
|
Palato-alveolar
|
Velar
|
Uvular
|
Plain
|
Round
|
Plain
|
Round
|
Nasal
|
M
|
|
n
|
|
?
|
|
?
|
|
|
Plosive
|
p, b
|
|
t, d
|
|
|
|
k, g
|
|
|
Fricative
|
|
f, v
|
s, z
|
?,?
|
|
|
|
|
?
|
Approximant
|
|
|
|
|
j
|
?
|
W
|
|
Lateral
|
|
|
L
|
|
?
|
|
|
|
|
SOURCE: (
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_phonology#Consonants)
Table 3: IPA chart for French consonants
The velar nasal /?/ is not a native phoneme of French, but
occurs in loan words in final position such as parking or
camping. The French rhotic has a wide range of realizations. [?], [?]
(both the fricative and the approximant), [r], [?], and [÷] will all be
recognized as "r", but most of them will be considered dialectal.
The approximants [j], [?] and [w] correspond to [i], [y] and
[u] respectively. While there are a few minimal pairs (such as loua
[lu.a] 'he rented' and loi [lwa] 'law'), there are many cases
where there is free variation.
12 Mamadou Bassène. 2003. «Some Aspects of Djola
Eegimaa Phonology». Master Thesis. Saint-Louis: Gaston Berger
University. p 31
b- The vowels
Standard French contrasts up to thirteen oral vowels and up to
four nasal vowels.
|
Front
|
Central
|
Back
|
Unrounded
|
Rounded
|
Close
|
i
|
y
|
|
u
|
CloseÐmid
|
e
|
0
|
?
|
o
|
Open Ð mid Open
|
Oral
|
? (?:)
|
Ï
|
?
|
Nasal
|
~?
|
(Ï~)
|
|
?Þ
|
|
|
?Þ
|
Oral
|
a
|
|
(?)
|
SOURCE: (
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_phonology#Vowels)
Table 4: French phonological vowels
Some speakers contrast a front /a/ vs. a back /?/ but there
are wide differences amongst such speakers as to which words have which vowel.
Similarly, some speakers distinguish between long /?:/ and short /?/;
maître [m?:t?] ('teacher') vs. mettre [m?t?] ('to
put').
The phonetic qualities of the back nasal vowels are not very
similar to those of the corresponding oral vowels, and the contrasting factor
that distinguishes /?Þ/ and /?Þ / is the extra lip rounding of the
latter. Many speakers have merged /ÏÞ/ with /?Þ
/.
The schwa (/??/ also called "e caduc" ('decrepit
e') and "e muet" ('mute e') is a mid central vowel
with some rounding. It is always dropped ("muet") before another vowel
(un(e) âme [yn.?:m] 'a soul'), and usually when following a
single consonant (rapp(e)ler
[?a.ple] 'to recall'). On the other hand, it is usually
pronounced when its omission would
Þ
create a cluster of three consonants or more (gredin
[g???.d? ], une porte [yn p??t], une porte fermee [yn
p??.t??.f??.me]). This vowel is phonologically distinct from [Ï], but
for
most native speakers of French, they may be pronounced
identically. For example, in le boeuf /l?? bÏf/ or
demi-heure /d??mjÏ?/, most French native speakers won't make
any
phonetic difference between the two vowels, pronounced
identically most of the time (or even swapped).
3- LANGUAGES IN CONTACT
Language contact occurs when speakers of distinct speech
varieties interact. When speakers of different languages interact closely, it
is typical for their languages to influence one another. One of the main
consequences arising from language contact is the influence exerted by one
language on the other and in most of the cases that of the superstratum over
the substratum. This influence can be mutual or non mutual. Other no less
important consequences of language contact are: borrowing, mixed languages, or
even language endangerment or death to mention only these few.
Change as a result of contact is often one-sided.
Chinese, for instance, has had a profound effect on the development of
Japanese, but the Chinese language remains relatively free of Japanese
influence, other than some modern terms that were re - borrowed after having
been coined in Japan. In India, Hindi and other native languages have
been influenced by English up to the extent that loan words from English are
part of day to day vocabulary.
In some cases, language contact may lead to mutual exchange,
although this exchange may be confined to a particular geographic region. For
example, in Switzerland, the local French has been influenced by
German, and vice-versa. In Scotland, the Scots language has
been heavily influenced by English, and many Scots terms have been
adopted into the regional English dialect.
All languages can borrow words from a language with which they
are in contact. Most of the time, these borrowed words undergo transformations
in conformity with the phonology of the target language. For example, given
that French words are stressed on the last syllable, the word walkman,
which has an initial accent in English, the source language, is pronounced with
a final French accent. However, there are also cases in which such an
adaptation does not take place; consequently, the sound structure of the
borrowing language undergoes a change. For example, further to the contact with
English and Italian, French has affricate consonants today, as in match
and pizza.
A mixed language is a language that arises through the fusion
of two source languages (both being clearly identifiable), normally in
situations of thorough bilingualism. It differs from either a pidgin, a Creole
and Code -Switching.
Concerning pidgin, it differs from it. The speakers of a mixed
language are fluent in both languages, whereas a pidgin develops when groups of
people with little knowledge of each other's languages come into contact and
have need of a basic communication system, as for trade, but do not have enough
contact to learn each other's language.
As for the second, they differ because a Creole language
generally has one identifiable parent in addition to diverse input which cannot
be traced to any particular language. While creoles tend to have drastically
simplified morphologies, mixed languages often retain the inflectional
complexities of both parent languages.
Finally, a mixed language differs from code-switching, such as
Spanglish and Frenglish13, in that speakers do not
need to know the source languages. The fusion of the source languages is fixed
in the grammar and vocabulary, not left to the speaker. However, it is believed
that mixed languages evolve from persistent code-switching, with younger
generations picking up the code-switching, but not necessarily the source
languages that generated it.
Language death is a recurring phenomenon in Sociolinguistics.
We can consider that generally language death occurs in a linguistic situation
of domination i.e. when a dominant language A replaces completely a dominated
language B. However the complete substitution of a language leading to its
death proceeds by stage. Three principal types of causes can be called upon to
explain the death of a language: physical, political and socio -economic
causes14.
4- REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
As pointed out by Yasmine Marzouk (1993), after the era of great
monographs by Louis-Vincent Thomas in Ethnology (1959) or by Paul Pelissier in
Human
13 Spanglish is a word coined to label the language
composed of the mix of Spanish and English same case as Frenglish
which is the mixture of French and English.
14 Henri Boyer. 2001. Introduction à la
Sociolinguistique. Paris: Dunod. Page 70
Geography (1966): Ç La bibliographie sur les Djola
pèche plutTMt par son abondance et par son éclatement, comme si
les auteurs avaient adopté la structure de l 'objet étudié
È [The bibliography on Djola is full of get-up-and-go rather by its
abundance and its bursting, as if the authors had adopted the
structure of the studied object].
Considerable works related to the Djola language and people in
general and the Eegimaa dialect in particular, were consulted for the working
out of this part of our research.
This part, as its name suggests, is an inventory of fixtures
but also a central and essential part of every academic research. Mbaya
(1999:21) understood that and stated it clearly saying the following:
«this stage is essential since it helps to master the field of
investigation and methodologies and to generate hypotheses or questions for
further studies ». This stage is also important in so far as it
allows us to set down the relationship between the existing document and our
project and also helps us diminish the risk of coming up with unreliable
conclusions.
Concerning the sociolinguistic situation of Senegal as a
whole, Mbaya (2005) in his last work entitled Pratiques et Attitudes
Linguistiques dans le Sénégal d'Aujourd'hui carried out a
meticulous analysis on the situation of language use and attitude in Senegal
and it appears in the light of his conclusions that the diversity of the
national parlances is at the origin of a vast complex network of influences and
interferences.
This work could be useful for us for a good reading of the
current Senegalese sociolinguistic situation since it is, to some extent, an
update of the relational life of the languages (official and vernacular) in
Senegal.
In his book published in 1983 and entitled Le Francais et
les Langues Africaines au Sénégal, and most precisely in the
second part: chapter five, page 196, Pierre Dumont talks about languages in
contact and does a clear and concise exposé of the diversity of the
languages in presence.
This work will particularly call our attention because it
presents the situation of the contact between the official language and the
other national languages but focuses most on Wolof and Serer in some parts. Our
interest in this study will be to push on further and try to see the real
relationship between Djola and French in Senegal.
On the typically regional level, Caroline Juillard (1995) in
her study carried out on the town of Ziguinchor, tried to bring out the major
issues for an efficient management of multilingualism in urban environment. Her
greater merit would be to be
able to decline two issues as well micro as
macro-sociolinguistic, to have gone in search of the linguistic life of
Ziguinchor citizens without any particular preconceived idea.
This work will be for us of great academic importance in so
far as it describes the complex reality of multilingualism in action in the
everyday life of the townsmen. It poses the problematics of the emergence of
new models of behaviour within a composite society in rapid change, with fast
and unstable influences.
Another work carried out on the Eegimaa population itself is
that of Paolo Palmeri published in 1995 and entitled Retour dans un Village
Diola de Casamance: Chronique d'une Recherche Anthropologique au
Sénégal. In this book, the author, as a good anthropologist,
penetrates deeply in the way of life of the Djola people of Mof Avi. The work
of Palmeri is characterized by its ethnographic quality. Basing himself on a
vast quantitative survey carried out in the majority of the villages of the
area, he delivers invaluable data on the composition of the population and
collects several oral versions of the history of the settlement in Mof
çvi starting from the emigration of the inhabitants from Burofay.
Among the various works devoted to Eegimaa so far, we can add
Sambou's «Approche phonologique du Djola Eegimaa» (1989). In this
article, the author describes the phonology of Eegimaa. He provides
phonological tables for both vowel and consonant phonemes, discusses the
realizations of the phonemes as well as the various phonetic environments which
condition the different allophones. Sambou also devises some morphophonological
rules for an 'accurate transcription' of Djola Eegimaa. The work is valuable
and the rules devised by the author prove very useful. This article also
proposes to provide to the linguist all information on the paradigmatic
phonemics and some practical rules for an exact phonological transcription of
the language.
Alain Christian Bassène, after his Master (2001) and
DEA (2003) dissertations devoted respectively to the phonology of Djola Eegimaa
and the nominals in this same variety, has supported on October
13th, 2006 at the University Lumière Lyon 2 in France, his
doctoral dissertation on the following topic: «Description du Djola Banjal
(Senegal)».
In this work, Bassène presents a general and as
complete description as possible of the Eegimaa grammar. This description made
it possible to review the study of phonology, morphophonology, morphology and
syntax, in a typological and functional point of view.
Mamadou Bassène (2003), as to him, worked in the
framework of his master dissertation on the following topic: «Some aspect
of Djola Eegimaa phonology». He devoted his entire work to the
vowel system. In so doing, he described the organization of Eegimaa vowel
segments as well as their features. He also described the following
phonological processes: vowel harmony, vowel elision, vowel coalescence, vowel
lengthening, vowel juxtaposition and vowel insertion which are very common in
Eegimaa.
Both works mentioned here above are of a high linguistic
importance and the conclusions carried out will be very helpful to us mainly in
the presentation of the Eegimaa language because nothing was apparently
neglected.
To emphasize on the studies that stick much more than every
other one, we have found the master dissertation of Ms. Adja Khady Thioune
(2006) entitled «The influence of Wolof on African French and African
English: a comparative study». In her work she studied the influence of
Wolof on both popular French and English as spoken in the streets by ordinary
people.
Following her example, we will devote our work on the study of
the nature of the influence of a national language on French in Senegal. But
the sole difference between our two studies will be that we will exclusively
work on educated people.
Another study that is closely linked to our topic is the
article of Mr. Edmund Biloa entitled «L'influence du Francais sur
l'Anglais Camerounais». In this paper, he studied the contact between the
two Cameroonian official languages namely French and English. He discovered a
high frenchisation of the English language and pointed out that this phenomenon
is due to the situation of a minority English-speaking community in a country
where the vast majority of its citizens are French-speaking.
His paper, as pointed out previously, treats the contact of
two official languages and the influence arising from that but ours will be
somehow different talking about official and a vernacular language.
CHAPTER THREE
***
The Fieldwork
1- The field of investigation
Ziguinchor, capital of Basse Casamance, is located in an area
of economical, political, cultural and linguistic contacts. Estimated to about
10,125 people all around Senegal in 200215, the Eegimaa people live
in the Casamance region in an area known as Mof çvi. The area
is bounded by the Casamance River on the north, the Kamobeul BTMlon on the
west, the Ziguinchor-Oussouye road on the south, and the Brin-Nyassia road on
the East. The area is composed of a set of ten villages whic h are: Essil,
Badiatte, Kamobeul, Séléki , Enampor, Batighére Essil,
Batighére BTMlon, Elubalir, Etama and Banjal16.
As for the two remaining places of the research zone: Dakar
and Saint-Louis, they are both towns where a great number of Eegimaa people are
found. Dakar being the capital city of Senegal is also the favourite
destination of the Djola who drifted away from Mof çvi in search for
better living conditions or for studies. The Djola people found in the town of
Saint-Louis are, most of the time, student at the university.
2- Research population
On the two banks of river Casamance, in the south of Senegal,
between Gambia and Guinea-Bissau, live populations labeled under the term of
Djola. Approximately 550 000 (all dialects) in the 1990s17, Djola
people constitute 5% of the Senegalese population.
The political organization of Djola people comprises a
nobiliary chieftaincy which has nothing more than religious functions, advisory
committees composed of old wise men who regulate the local litigations and
heads of village s or cantons chosen by the administration and who have the
special responsibility of collecting the tax. But the real power is held by
adepts of animistic practices. But a part of the population adheres however to
Islam or Christianity.
15
http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=SN
16 See Map 2: The Eegimaa speaking area, page5
1 7 E n cycl o p3/4d i a Universalis 1995 France S.A. All rights
of intellectual and industrial ownership reserved.
3- The Sample
In the choice of our informants we tried to find a certain
number of people capable of reflecting the general tendency (25 from Ziguinchor
and 25 others from Dakar and Saint-Louis)18. All the informants
fulfilled a certain number of criteria: they were Eegimaa native speakers, men
and women aged of at least fifteen years and having attended school for at
least seven years.
4- Tools of investigation
Concerning our tools of investigation, we used different methods
and among these, we can mention: the questionnaire and the conversation
recordings.
a- The questionnaire
The choice of our informants was done via a questionn aire.
The paper in question comprises two major parts namely the identification and
the questions. In the first one, people were asked to give personal information
such as their family name, surname(s), address, age, sex and their birth
country. As for the second part, people were asked a limited set of questions
among which: their mother tongue, other spoken languages, if they have studied
French and up to what level etc 19 . Once all those information
collected, we picked up people likely to help.
b- The conversation recordings
For this research work, the topic chosen for our discussion
was «education in the Eegimaa society ». By this topic, we
mean t to talk about the specificities of education in the Eegimaa
environment.
To foster discussion, we sometimes ask our informants to
choose one ceremony or one aspect of their culture and tell us something about
it. The main aim in doing so was not to test their knowledge concerning their
culture but to make them fill free to speak so as we could record data for
analysis. The conversation recordings lasted between five and seven minutes
free discussions per informant.
18 See Appendix 3: The list of the informants, page 45. 1 9 See
appendix 2: Questionnaire page 44.
CHAPTER FOUR
***
Data analysis
And
Interpretation
1- CORPUS PRESENTATION
The corpus presented here after is the result of the
recordings made within the framework of our fieldwork. It consists of all the
information collected from our fifty (50) informants: 35 men (70%) and 15 women
(30%) all aged between 15 and 66 years old and all educated native speakers of
Eegimaa. The topic for discussion was about Education in the Eegimaa
society.
Standard French
|
Integrated word
|
Context of production
|
1- avancer [av?Þs?]
|
[v?Þse]
|
Woli ni ?i v?Þsewul
maa20
|
2- brousse [b?us]
|
[burus]
|
Ici on fait le buhut pour emmener les garçons
dans la bourousse.
|
3- c'est-à-dire [s?tadi?]
|
[sa:dir]
|
Etre éduqué c'est ôtre sympathique
saadir ne pas ôtre n'importe comment.
|
4- choisi [?wazi]
|
[?wazise:]
|
Achila a choisisee ga?ow gagu gaa Affiledio
|
5- chose [?oz]
|
[soz]
|
Ils veulent faire res soz
leurs prop
|
6- commencé [k?m?Þse]
|
[kumasime]
|
Woli ?i kumasime tale a-b-c-d ni lekkol
yauye
|
7- comportement
[k?Þp??t?m?Þ]
|
[k?p:?rt?m?]
|
Mbu kan nu ?uh copportema yola
|
8- comprendre
[k?Þp??Þd?]
|
[k?mpr?ne]
|
?ama ni ?i ba? si sabu, Omoi babu matu
comprene
|
9- d'abord [dab ??]
|
[da:b ?r]
|
Il y a daabor papa et maman au sein de la
famille.
|
10- dépandre [dep?Þd?]
|
[dep?nde]
|
Do pan depande ni buro? babu
|
11- dernier [d???e]
|
[d?r?er]
|
Bugo gu ?ilo dár?er
|
12- école [ek?l]
|
[lek:?l]
|
In?e ni ?oge buoh na halekalen lekkol katin an
aam ni iniversite
|
13- l'historique [listo?ik]
|
[list?rik]
|
U ma?mé u etu?é listorik
yaa Mof çvi
|
|
20 Sentences in Eegimaa, in the corpus, will be translated in the
next part before analysis same for French ones.
14- inscris [?~sk?i]
|
[?skrive]
|
U escrive a?il ahu
|
15- leçon [l?s?Þ]
|
[l?s??]
|
Nu li?ene su leso?i?
|
16- maman [mamã]
|
[mam:a]
|
Il y a d'abord papa et mamma au sein de la
famille.
|
17- monsieur [m?sj0]
|
[mus?]
|
A muse ahu na oblige-oblige
|
|
18-papa [papa]
|
[pap:a]
|
Il y a d'abord pappa et maman au sein de la
famille.
|
19-parce que [pa?s(?)k]
|
[pask?]
|
Paske c'est à cause des guerres tribales
que ces gens-la ont quittes
|
20-politique [p?litik]
|
[polotih]
|
?i hat polotihay yo ?i kaneme.
|
21- pratiquement [p?atikmã]
|
[paratikma]
|
Au village, on est paratikma tous de la
môme famille.
|
22-premier [p??mje]
|
[pr?me:]
|
Woli ?i comasime tale a-b-c-d, woli preme
|
23-problème [p??bl?m]
|
[p?r?bul?m]
|
No Sálagi gu ba?me e
porobulem yauye
|
24- saleté [sal?t?]
|
[salt?:]
|
To nu ?uge an a saltee
|
25- suivre [s?iv?]
|
[si:ve]
|
U siiveutme
|
26- temps [tã]
|
[ta?]
|
Nu ?uge ni ta? yauyu
|
27- une [yn]
|
['n]
|
'n personne mal éduquée est un marginal.
|
28- université [yniv?rsite]
|
[iniv?rsite]
|
In?e ni ?oge buoh na halekalen lekkol katin an aam ni
iniversite
|
29- voilà [vwala]
|
[wa:la]
|
Waala! Wolof hum nu munde uun
|
30- vue [vy]
|
[v']
|
De mon point de vue
|
|
This is the corpus to be analyzed in the next chapter. It is
composed of thirty (30) words.
In this part, which is one of the most determining in the work
because conclusions will arise from it, we will present and analyze the data
collected from our informants. These following tables will help achieve our
goal.
Table 5: The age of the
informants
Age
|
15-25
|
25-45
|
45-65+
|
Total
|
Number
|
37
|
8
|
5
|
50
|
Percentage
|
74%
|
16%
|
10%
|
100%
|
Table 5 shows that the sample is relatively very young. Almost
3/4 of our informants are aged between 15 and 25 years old. They represent 74%
versus 16% aged between 25 and 45, the remaining 10% being the age bracket
45-65 and over.
Table 6: Sex of the
informants
Sex
|
Male
|
Female
|
Total
|
Number
|
35
|
15
|
50
|
Percentage
|
70%
|
30%
|
100%
|
In the table above, one can notice that 70% of the people
interviewed are men versus 30% women. This is mainly due to the fact that men
are far better represented in the schools and they were more available than
women to answer our questions.
Table 7: Level of study of the
informants
Level of study
|
Primary
|
Secondary
|
Tertiary
|
Total
|
Number
|
4
|
20
|
26
|
50
|
Percentage
|
8%
|
40%
|
52%
|
100%
|
Table 7 is about the level of study of our informants. It shows
that all of them have been to school. The greater majority (52%) has reached
the university level, 40%
rose the secondary level and only 8% of the sample stopped at the
primary level. One of the most significant information to be retained is that
our sample is highly educated.
Table 8: Languages spoken by the
informants
Djola
|
Spanish
|
French
|
Wolof
|
Mandingo
|
Fulani
|
English
|
Creole
|
Mankagne
|
Portuguese
|
50
|
8
|
50
|
45
|
7
|
1
|
16
|
4
|
2
|
4
|
100%
|
16%
|
100%
|
90%
|
14%
|
2%
|
32%
|
8%
|
4%
|
8%
|
From this table, it is noticeable that ten languages are
spoken by our informants. Among this set of ten languages, Djola and French are
spoken by all of them and 90% speak Wolof. Further details show that almost all
our informants are bilingual (Djola Ð French) or trilingual (Djola- French
-Wolof).
Table 9: Mastery of Eegimaa
Languages
|
Eegimaa
|
Other (s)
|
Total
|
Number
|
41
|
9
|
50
|
Percentage
|
82%
|
18%
|
100%
|
Among the people interviewed, all are Eegimaa native speakers.
But table 9 shows that nine (9) persons out of fifty master other languages
better than Djola. Out of these nine informants, six master French, two Wolof
and only one Spanish more than Eegimaa. The reason is that it is the languages,
(except for Spanish) used at home with their parents and relatives.
To sum up, we can point out that fifty persons have been
interviewed among whom 70% are men and 30% are women, all aged between 15 and
66 years. They all have been to school and 52% of them reached the tertiary
level. They all speak, at least, two languages and the most spoken ones are
Eegimaa, French and Wolof but they also speak other languages such as
English,
Portuguese, Mandingo, Spanish etc. Concerning the mastery of
the mother tongue, only 18% of our sample affirms mastering French and Wolof
more than Eegimaa because they are the languages spoken in the family circle
with parents and relatives.
2- MORPHOPHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
This part will take into account all the thirty words
composing our corpus. The analysis will be carried out following the order in
which the words occur in the presentation of the corpus. For the sentences in
Eegimaa, they will be translated both in French and English before being
analyzed in order to ease comprehension. As to those in French, they will only
be translated in English as it is the language in which the analysis will be
done. After each analysis, a rule is formulated if necessary.
1. «Woli ni ji v?~ sewul maa»
a. French: Nous avancâmes de ce
côté-ci.
b. English: We advanced this side.
Þ
[av?
|
sE] in standard French becomes [v?Þ
|
sE] in Eegimaa. The phonological process
|
used here is truncation. As its name suggests, it
consists in truncating or shortening the word. Here the initial [a] was
taken away so as [av?Þ sE] becomes [v?Þ sE].
We also have
another process called lexical hybridization
consisting in using the features of different languages in the same
word. The word, as it is used in the spontaneous speech gives
Þ
[v?
|
sewul] which, decomposed, will give [v?Þ
|
se+wul]. The suffix «wul» comes from the
|
contraction of «woli» meaning «we/us» in
Eegimaa.
The rule for truncation: Aff. + Rad. + Suff. x + Rad.+Suff
The rule for lexical hybridization: feature of L2 + feature of
L1
2. «Ici, on fait le Buhut pour emmener les garcons dans
la bourous»
a. English: [Here, we organize the
Buhut21 in order to bring the boys into the forest].
Two processes are noticed in this sentence. The first is
related to cluster simplification by vowel copying or simply called
vowel intrusion/insertion and the second is an
alveolarization. [bKus] becomes [burus]. Not only another [u] is
21 Buhut is the Eegimaa word for the big ceremony of
Circumcision which is a central event in Djola societies.
copied/inserted between the two first consonants of the word but
the uvular [K] is replaced by the alveolar [r] this process is commonly known
as alveolarization.
The rule for alveolarization: [K] [r]
The rule for vowel intrusion/insertion: CCV CVCV
3. «Etre éduqué c'est être
sympathique saadir ne pas être n'importe comment».
English: [To be well-mannered is to be nice meaning not to behave
any old how] [sEtadiK] becomes [sa:dir] by three processes. The first one is
known as omission or
deletion, the second as alveolarization as
seen in sentence 2 and the third as lexicalization. Concerning
deletion, it consists in omitting or deleting a sequence in
the word. The gap left here by the deletion of the sequence [Et] occasioned
by the liaison is
filled by the immediate following vowel [a] which is
lengthened. As for lexicalization, it is materialized here by the fact
that the French wor d «c'est -à-dire» is composed of three
syllables whereas in Eegimaa we have only two.
The rule for deletion: [sEtadiK]
[sa:dir]
The rule for lexicalization: sE-ta-diK sa-dir
4. ' Achila a choizisee gajow gagu
gaa Affiledio È
French: [C'est lui qui a choisi le nom
Affilédio]
English: [He has chosen the name Affilédio]
The phonological process noticed in this sentence is
lexicalization simply because
[fwazi] becomes [fwazise:]. [se] is added to the radical of the
verb, the sound [e] being the marker of the past participle in Eegimaa.
5. ' Ils veulent faire leurs propres soz
È
English: [They want to do their own things]
In this sentence, [foz] became [soz]. The change noticed here is
that the palato-
alveolar sound [f] is substituted by the alveolar [s]. This
phenomenon is known as alveolarization as already seen in some
previous examples.
6. «Woli ?i kumasime tale a-b-c-d ni
lekkol yauye»
French: [C'est nous qui avons commencé ici le
a-b-c-d dans cette école] English: [We are the one who began
a-b-c-d here in this school]
[k?m?Þ se] becomes [kum?sime], we notice in
this word phonological phenomena
such as closing, denasalization and cluster
simplification by consonant copying. Concerning the closing,
we know that both [?] and [u] are back rounded vowels but the
first one which is mid-opened is substituted for a totally
closed one. This process is called closing. As to denasalization,
it is materialized by the substitution of a nasal sound for an oral one
[?Þ] becomes [a]. In addition to this, the [m] of [kumasi] is
reduplicated and added to the radical of the verb only for the sake of
simplification and conjugation.
7. «Mbu kan nu ?uh kopportema
yola»
French: [Essaie de voir son comportement]
English: [Try to see his/her behaviour]
[k?Þ p??t?m?Þ] becomes
[k?p:?rt?m?]. In this word, we have a denasalization of both [?Þ
]
and [?Þ] which become respectively [?] and [?].The sound
[p] is lengthened. We also have an alveolarization the uvular [?] is
replaced by the alveolar [r].
The rule for denasalization: [nasal sound] [oral
sound]
Examples: [?Þ ] [?]
Þ
[?] [a]
8. Ç ?ama ni ?i ba? si sabbu, Omoi babu matu
comprene È
French: [Maintenant vous avez plusieurs types de savons,
de détergents à la fin on ne comprend plus]
English: [Now you have different types of soaps,
detergents that at last no one understands]
In this word, the French nasal vowel [?Þ ] broke up to be
[?m]. The process
described here is known as nasal unpacking. As a
nasal vowel is the contraction of an oral vowel plus a nasal consonant, the
nasal unpacking, as its name suggest is its break into two distinct sounds
because nasal vowels do not exist in Eegimaa but nasalized ones only. Another
important aspect to be studied is the break or deletion of the cluster [nd?]
replaced by [ne] so as the [CCC] cluster becomes a [CV] one much
more frequent in Eegimaa than the previous.
The rule for nasal unpacking: [nasal sound] [oral vowel +
nasal
consonant]
The rule for cluster simplification by vowel copying: [CCV]
[CVCV]
9. Ç Il y a daabor papa et maman au
sein de la famille È
English: [There are first dad and mum in the bosom of the
family]
In the pronunciation of the word «d'abord»
the first phenomenon to be studied is that of the lengthening of
the sound [a] which became [a:] this, is certainly due to the deletion of the
liaison. We also have the alveolarization of the final
[K].
10. «Do pan depande ni burong
babu»
French: [Ceci dépendra de la vie]
English: [This will depend on life]
[dep?ÞdK] in standard French becomes
[dep?nde] in Eegimaa. The observation of this
word shows that we have two processes. In the first, we have a
nasal unpacking with [?Þ]
becoming [an] and in the second, a cluster simplification
by consonant deletion and vowel addition. The [dK] at the end of the
word is replaced by [de]. The consonant was
deleted because it would be difficult for an Eegimaa speaker to
pronounce [dep?ÞdKe:].
The rule for cluster simplification by consonant deletion and
vowel addition:
[dK] [de]
11. «Bugo gu chilo
dárper»
French: [Ils sont venus en dernier]
English: [They came in last]
In the pronunciation of this word, the [E] is replaced by [??].
This can be considered as
centralization because the front vowel sound [E] is
substituted by the central one. Another important phenomenon is that of
alveolarization of the Parisian [K] but most
important and very surprising is the pronunciation of the
final [r] due to the orthographic influence of French. This final [r]
is written but not read in French this could have misled Eegimaa native
speakers.
12. «Inje ni joge buoh na halekalen
lekkol kattin an aam iniversite»
French: [Pour moi il a abandonné les études
alors qu'il est à l'université] English: [For me he has
left school while he is at the university]
This word presents features of a phonological process known as
lexicalization as we have seen in many examples above. [ek?l] becomes
[lek:?l] by fusion of the article and
the noun linked by the liaison. We also have the lengthening of
the sound [k].
13. ' U ma?me u etu ?e
listorik yaa Mofçvi
È
French: [Si tu veux étudier l'historique du Mof
çvi]
English: [If you want to study the history of Mof
çvi]
[listo?ik] becomes [list?rik]. The [o] is replaced by [?] which
is lower and more
opened. The lexicalization process in this word
consists in its spelling in one word whereas in standard French it is written
in two words. We also have an alveolarization [?] becomes [r].
14. ' U eskrive a?il ahu È
French: [Inscris l'enfant]
English: [Enrol the children]
[?
sk?i] becomes [ ?skrive] thanks to three phonological processes
namely
denasalization, alveolarization and
lexicalization. In the first one, the nasal vowel [?Þ ] lost its
nasality replaced by [?]. Concerning the phenomenon of alveolarization,
the velar sound [?] is replaced by the alveolar sound [r]. As for
lexicalization, we noticed that the word has changed to become
[?skrive] thanks to the deletion/substitution process. The final [?]
of the infinitive in French was deleted and substituted by the [ve] for matters
of simplification and conjugation.
15. ' Nu li?ene si leso?i? È
French: [As-tu appris tes lecons?]
English: [Have you learnt your lessons?]
This word presents features of either lexicalization
[l?s?Þ ] became [l?s??i] here
the [i] represents the second person possessive pronoun in
Eegimaa it is placed behind the possessed object contrarily to French, and
nasal unpacking [?Þ ] became [??].
16. ' Il y a d'abord papa et mamma au sein
de la famille È
English: [There are first dad and mum in the bosom of the
family]
[mam] becomes [mam:a] by two processes. The first is the
lengthening of the nasal consonant [m] which is an allophone of [m] in
Eegimaa and the denasalization of the final nasal vowel [].
17. ' A muse ahu na oblige-oblige È
French: [Le monsieur été obligé] English: [The mister
was obliged]
[m?sjø] [mus?]. In this word, we first have a backing
of the central vowel
[??] which is substituted for a back [u] and then the
depalatalization of the sound [j]. At last, we have the [] which is
replaced by [?]. The phenomenon is known as opening.
18. ' D'abord il y a pappa et maman au sein
de la famille È
English: [There are first dad and mum in the bosom of the
family]
No special process is to be noticed here apart from the
lengthening of the second [p]. So, the French word for dad
«papa» as pronounced by the Eegimaa people, is a little bit heavier
than as if it was done by French simply because of the lengthening of the [p].
One of the reasons that can account for this is that in Eegimaa, the original
word for dad is `appa' with a slight insistence on the [p].
19. ' Paske c'est à cause des
guerres tribales que ces gens-là ont quittées È
English: [It's because of the tribal wars that those people
left]
[pa?sk?] becomes [pask?] by means of cluster simplification
by consonant deletion of
the [?]. The reason of the deletion is justified by the
simplification of the clusters in Eegimaa.
The rule for cluster simplification by consonant deletion:
[CVCCCV] [CVCCV]
20. «?i hat polotihay yo?i
kaneme»
French: [Arrêtez cette politique que vous faites]
English: [Stop this kind of politics you are involved in]
The word «politique» as it is pronounced in this
spontaneous speech is no longer [p?litik] but [polotih]. The closing of the
initial [?] give [o]. The first [i] which is a front vowel is replaced by a
back [o] by the process known as backing. The final velar consonant
[k] is replaced by the glottal sound [h] which is not «muet» (mute)
in Eegimaa. The process here is known as glottalization. Words ending
in [ik] in French such as «boutique» and «politique», are
realized [bitih] and [polotih].
21. ' Au village, on est tous paratikma de
la meme famille È
English: [At the village, we are practically all from the same
family]
In the pronunciation of this word, we have a cluster
simplification by vowel copying the [a] is copied and inserted between two
consonants [p] and [r]. The velar sound [?] is
replaced by the alveolar [r] causing then an
alveolarization. The last thing to be reported is that the nasal sound
at the end of the word is denasalized because nasal vowel sounds are
not allowed, in word final position, in Eegimaa.
22. ' Woli ?i comasime tale a-b-c-d ni lek:ol yauye, woli
preme È
French: [C'est nous qui avons commencé ici le a-b-c-d
dans cette école, nous les premiers]
English: [We are the one who began a-b-c-d here in this school,
we the firs t]
The only two things to be noticed in the pronunciation of this
word are the alveolarization of the French velar [?] and the
deletion of the [j] so as the word in
Eegimaa becomes [pr??me:] and not [p???mje].
23. ' No Sállagi gu ba?me e porobul?m
yauye È
French: [Au temps oü les villageois de Séléki
ont eu ce problème]
English: [At that time when people of Séléki got
that problem]
The analysis of this word presents features of a cluster
simplification by vowel copying. The [?] is inserted between the [p] and
the [r] alveolarized and copied so as the
word is read simply and more easily. Another vowel to be inserted
is the [u]
incorporated between [b] and [l]. The lexicalization is
at the origin of the shift from [p??bl?m] to [p?r?bul?m].
24. Ç To nu ?uge ana saltee
È
French: [C'est à ce moment là que tu vois une
personne sale]
English: [It's at that time when you see a dirty person]
[sal?t?] becomes [salt?:] by the process of deletion
of the central vowel [?]. But we
also have a lengthening of the short vowel [?] which
becomes [?:].
25. «U siiveutme»
French: [Si tu ne suis pas]
English: [If you do not follow]
The most obvious phenomena to be noticed in this word are the
depalatalization of the sound [?] replaced by [i:] and the
deletion of the final uvular [?]. The gap left by the
deletion of [?] is filled by the lengthening of [i]. To this,
we can add the lexical ization of the verb [s?iv?] which becomes
[siive] plus [ut] which, put behind a verb, stands for the negation in Eegimaa
and plus the [me] which accounts for the condition in this case.
26. ' Nu ?uge ni ta? yauyu È
French: [Tu vois en ce temps]
English: [You see at that time]
[tã] in French becomes [ta?] in Eegimaa by process of
nasal unpacking. The single
nasal vowel is divided into two sounds: an oral vowel and a
nasal consonant simply because not only we don't have nasal vowels in Eegimaa
but it is not allowed in word final position.
27. ' In personne mal éduquée
est un marginal È
English: [An ill-mannered person is a fringe of society]
[yn] becomes ['n]. The French back vowel [y] is replaced by the
front vowel sound ['] simply because we do not have [y] in Eegimaa.
28. ' In?e ni ?oge buoh na halekalen lek:ol kattin an aam ni
iniversite È
French: [Pour moi il a abandonné les études alors
qu'il est à l'université] English: [For me he has left school
while he is at the university]
The French word «université» is pronounced
[iniv?rsite] in Eegimaa. The [y] sound is substituted for [i]. As we have said
in the previous example, the [y] does not exist in Eegimaa.
29. ' Waala ! Wolof hum nu munde uun
È
French: [Voilà! c'est le Wolof que tu as appris en
premier]
English: [Well! It's Wolof that you learnt first]
[vwala] becomes [wa:la] by means of cluster
simplification by consonant deletion. The simplification consists in the
fact that the labio-dental consonant followed by a bilabial is omitted and the
first [a] is lengthened.
30. ' Demon point de v' personnel.
È
English: [To my personal standpoint]
The pronunciation of the French oral sound [y] is realized so
as people hear the Eegimaa vowel sound [1]. The rounded vowel sound [y] in
standard French is substituted for the unrounded vow el [1] of Eegimaa. This
can be justified by the fact that in Eegimaa, the sound [y] does not exist.
3- REPORTING THE FINDINGS
After the analysis of all the thirty words composing our
corpus, we discovered that the influence exerted by Eegimaa on French is mostly
noticeable on the words borrowed from that language. During their integration
within the Eegimaa language they are subjected to various transformations.
These transformations are materialized through different phonological and
morphophonological processes such as lexicalization, cluster simplification,
vowel or consonant intrusion/insertion, deletion/omission, alveolarization etc.
Apart from that major discovery others are also to be reported hereafter.
We have discovered that:
· The French sound [y] is not part of the Eegimaa
phonological alphabet. When it occurs in this variety it is substituted for [']
as in [yniv?rsite] and [yn] which becomes respectively ['niversite] and ['n].
Any word in which it is found is undoubtedly a borrowing from French or other
languages.
· Eegimaa does not have nasal vowel sounds but nasalized
ones such as [an] in
[depande], [a?] in [ta?] and [??] in [l??s??].
· Nasal vowels are not allowed in word final position. If a
nasal is to happen, it is either denasalized as in [k?p:?rt?ma] or nasally
unpacked as in [l??s??] and
[ta?].
· Words in Eegimaa do not or rarely end with the central
vowel [??]. French borrowed words and most precisely verbs ending with this
sound are simplified or deleted as in [k?Þ
p??Þd?] which becomes [k?mpr?ne] and
[dep?Þd?] which becomes [dep?nde].
French words with a [CCV] cluster are simplified either by
means of deletion as in [pa?sk?] which becomes [pask ?] or by vowel intrusion
as in [b?us] which becomes [burus].
· In most of the cases, when a consonant is deleted for
the sake of simplification, the following vowel is lengthened to fill the gap
left as in [s?tadi?] which becomes [sa:dir] and [s?iv?] which becomes
[siive].
GENERAL CONCLUSION
Almost a set of twenty local languages are spoken in
Ziguinchor (Djola, Mandingo, Fulani, Portuguese Creole, Mandjak etc.) on which
is superimposed the official language: French. The Djola language is, in
Casamance, more than a vehicular language and enjoys a prestigious status. It
is at the same time the language of the Djola people, the language of the South
and the language of unification.
Our main objective in this work was to study, as clearly as
possible, the relationship between Djola and French, particularly the influence
exerted by the former on the latter. In so doing, we decided to focus mainly on
the educated native speakers of Eegimaa a variety of Djola spoken in the
Ancient kingdom of Mof çvi. This choice was motivated by the fact that
they were the fringe of the society most closely in contact with the official
language French.
To achieve the goal we had set ourselves, a methodology was
designed consisting in first travelling to the south side of the country, the
centre of the Djola language and civilization, in order to meet native speakers
whose fifty were chosen to compose our sample. Then, we proceeded to the
conversation recordings from which, the raw material for data analysis was
taken. And at last, those collected data were analyzed and interpreted so as
major conclusions could be drawn.
After a deep analysis of all the data, we came up with the
major conclusion that Eegimaa, contrarily to what people may think, exerts a
great influence on French which is not only the official language but above all
the most prestigious in the community. That influence is mostly felt on the
borrowed words, as they are integrated into Eegimaa; it mostly affects, as we
have studied, the fields of morphophonology, syntax, vocabulary and even
grammar, morphophonology being the most affected of all.
We discovered that:
· Eegimaa do not have nasal vowel sounds, contrarily to
French, but nasalized ones.
· Whenever a word with nasal v owel is borrowed from
French, it is denasalized when integrating the Eegimaa dialect. Concrete
examples for that are words such as «comportement»
[k?Þ p??t?m?Þ] and «commencer»
[k?m?Þ se] etc. which become
respectively «copportema» [k?p:?rt?ma] and
«kumasi» [kumasi].
Illustrations: [?Þ
] [?]
[?] [a]
· French words ending with a nasal vowel sound are
nasally unpacked because nasal vowel sounds are not allowed in word final
position, in Eegimaa. Examples in point will be found in words such as
«temps» [tã] and «lecon» [l?s?Þ ]
which
become respectively [ta?] and [l?s??] Illustrations: [ã]
[a?]
[?
] [??]
· The standard French sound [y] does not occur in
Eegimaa. So, all words in which it is found are borrowings from other
languages. When [y] occurs in Eegimaa, it is substituted by ['] in words such
as «université» [yniv?rsite] and «une» [yn] which
become respectively «iniversite» ['niv?rsite] and «'n»
['n].
Illustration: [y] [']
Some difficulties can be mentioned: the major one was
concerned with finding works dealing with a scientific description of Eegimaa.
We succeeded, however, in finding some (Bassène 2003, Bassène
2006 and Sambou 1989) that helped us to achieve the goals we set ourselves from
the beginning. Another one is that almost all the documents used in this work
were written in French so as we were obliged to translate some part where
needed.
Despite the problem of documentation, we found that Eegimaa
was, linguistically speaking, a virgin land. This made our desire to keep on
working on this variety grows up. Our interest, in future researches will
surely be turned towards studying the influence of Eegimaa on English and why
not comparing the results with the ones already found for French.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MAIN BOOKS
+ BERANGER, Ferraud. 1879. Les Peuplades de la
Sénégambie. Paris : F. Leroux. + BOYER, Henri. 2001.
Introduction à la Sociolinguistique. Paris : Dunod.
+ DIOUF, Makhtar. 1999. Sénégal : les Ethnies
et la Nation. Dakar : NEAS
+ DONEUX, Jean Louis. n.d. Les Systèmes Phonologiques
des Langues de Casamance. Dakar: CLAD.
+ DUMONT, Pierre. 1983. Le Francais et les Langues Africaines
au Sénégal. Karthala.
+ GUMPERZ, J-J. 1989. Sociolinguistique
Interactionnelle. Paris: L'Harmattan et l'Université de la
Réunion.
+ JUILLARD, Caroline. 1995. Sociolinguistique Urbaine: la Vie
des Langues à Ziguinchor (Sénégal). Paris : Editions
du C.N.R.S.
+ MBAYA, Mawéja. 1999. Exploring Primary and Secondary
Research. Dakar: ELU.
+ MBAYA, Mawéja. 2005. Pratiques et Attitudes
Linguistique en Afrique d'Aujourd'hui: Le Cas du Sénégal.
Munich: LINCOM Europa Gmbh.
+ PALMERI, Paolo. 1995. Retour dans un Village Djola de
Casamance:
Chronique d'une Recherche Anthropologique au
Sénégal. Paris: l'Harmattan. + PELISSIER, Paul. 1966.
Les Paysans du Sénégal. Fabregue, Saint-Yrieix.
+ ROCHE, Christian. 1976. Conquête et
Résistance des Peuples de Casamance.
Dakar-Abidjan : Nouvelles Editions Africaines.
+ THOMAS, Louis Vincent. 1958-1959. Les Djola. Essai
d'analyse fonctionnel1e sur une population de Basse Casamance. Tomes I et II.
IFAN, Dakar.
+ TRUDGILL, P. 1996. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to
Language and Society. Penguin Books.
+ WEINREICH, Uriel. 1963. Languages in Contact. La Hayes
: Mouton.
MASTER DISSERTATIONS AND THESES
+ BASSENE, Alain Christian. 2001. Ç Phonologie du
Djola Eegimaa È. Mémoire de Maitrise, Université
Cheikh Anta DIOP, Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines,
Département de linguistique générale.
+ BASSENE, Alain Christian. 2003. Ç Les Nominaux en
Djola Eegimaa È. Mémoire de DEA, Université Cheikh
Anta DIOP, Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines, Département
de linguistique générale.
+ BASSENE, Mamadou. 2003. «Some Aspects of Djola
Eegimaa Phonology». Master Thesis. Saint-Louis: Gaston Berger
University, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, English Department.
+ HOPKINS, Bradley Lynn. 1995. Ç Contribution
à une Etude de la Syntaxe Djola Fogny È. Thèse de
doctorat de 3ème cycle, Université Cheikh Anta DIOP,
Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines, Département de
linguistique générale.
+ KEBE, Moustapha. 2006. Ç La Domination Coloniale
Francaise en Basse Casamance 1836-1960 È. Thèse de doctorat
de 3eme cycle, Université Cheikh Anta DIOP, Faculté des Lettres
et Sciences Humaines, Département d'histoire.
+ NDAO, Papa Alioune. 1996. Ç Contact de Langues au
Sénégal, Etude du Code-Switching Wolof-Francais en Milieu Urbain:
Approche Linguistique, Sociolinguistique et Pragmatique È.
Thèse de doctorat d'Etat, Université Cheikh Anta DIOP,
Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines, Département de Lettres
Modernes.
+ SAMBOU, Pierre-Marie. 1979. Ç Djola Kaasaa
Esuulaalur: Phonologie,
ème
Morphophonologie et Morphologie È.
Thèse de doctorat de 3 cycle, Dakar: Université de Dakar,
Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines, Département de
Linguistique générale. 211 pages.
+ TENDENG, Antoine. 1974. Ç Les Sources de
lÕHistoire de la Casamance aux Archives du Sénégal
1816-1920 È. Thèse de doctorat, Université Cheikh
Anta DIOP, Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines, Département
d'histoire.
+ TENDENG, Odile. 1984. Ç Contribution à une
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+ THIOUNE, Adja Khady. 2006. «The Influence of Wolof
on African French and African English: a Comparative Study». M.A
Thesis. Saint-Louis: Gaston Berger University. English Department.
ARTICLES
+ BILOA, Edmund. <<L'influence du Francais sur l'Anglais
CamerounaisÈ in Sudlangues numéro 2, Juin-Juillet
2003.
+ DONEUX, Jean Louis. << Hypotheses pour la Comparative
des Langues Atlantiques È in Annales du Musée Royal de
l'Afrique Centrale. n° 88, 1975, pp. 43-129.
+ DUMONT, Pierre. Ç Les Nouveaux Rapports
entre le Francais et les Langues Nationales au Sénégal
È in Réalités Africaines et Langue Francaise
numéro 8, Octobre 1978.
+ JOB, A. << Une Analyse Sociolinguistique de l'Emprunt
dans le Contexte Multilingue GambienÈ in Plurilinguismes
numéro 9-10, juin-décembre 1995 C.E.R.P.L (Centre d'Etudes
et de Recherches en Planification Linguistique).
+ JUILLARD, Caroline, <<Répertoire et Acte de
Communication en Situation Plurilingue : le cas de Ziguinchor au
SénégalÈ in Langage et Société
numéro 54, décembre 1990.
+ MARZOUK, Yasmine, << Du côté de la
Casamance: Pouvoirs, Espaces et Religions È, in Cahiers
d'études africaines, 1993, XXXIII (3), 131 : 485.
+ SAMBOU, Pierre Marie,<< Approche Phonologique du Djola
EegimaaÈ in Annales de la Faculté des Lettres et Sciences
Humaines, numéro 19, 1989. pp 191-205
WEBLIOGRAPHY
+
http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=SN
14th, May, 2007 at 07:09
+ visited on 03 rd
http://www.freedomfaith.org ,
June, 2008 at 18:08
+
http://www.sudlangues.org
visited on 20th, May, 2008 at 16:55
+
http://www.uquebec.ca/diverscite
visited on 24th, June, 2007 at 16:45
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Portrait of Affiledio Manga the last
«King - priest-of -the-rain»
Portrait by: Louis Eketbo Bassène (1992)
Appendix 2: The questionnaire
IDENTIFICATION
Nom :
Prénom(s)
Adresse :
Age : ans
Sexe : MASCULIN FEMININ
Pays de naissance : ..
QUESTIONS
+ Quelle est votre langue maternelle?
+ Quelle(s) autre(s) langue(s) parlez-vous et comprenez-vous?
+ Parmi ces langues y- a-t-il une que vous connaissez mieux que
votre langue maternelle?
OUI NON
Primaire Secondaire Supérieur
Si oui
laquelle ?
Pourquoi ?
+ Avez-vous étudié le francais?
OUI NON
+ Si oui, jusqu'à quel niveau?
Appendix 3: List of the informants
FAMILY NAME
|
FIRST NAME(S)
|
AGE /SEX
|
ADDRESS
|
LEVEL OF STUDY
|
1- BADJI
|
Serghinho D.
|
Male / 25
|
Saint-Louis
|
Tertiary
|
2- BASSENE
|
Amiral Trésor
|
Male / 25
|
Banjal
|
Tertiary
|
3- BASSENE
|
Bienvenu Missa
|
Male / 24
|
Cite Conachap
|
Tertiary
|
4- BASSENE
|
Charlotte A.
|
Female / 18
|
Kameubeul
|
Secondary
|
5- BASSENE
|
De Gonzag Louis
|
Male / 23
|
Fass Delorme
|
Tertiary
|
6- BASSENE
|
Dembo
|
Male / 26
|
Grand Yoff
|
Tertiary
|
7- BASSENE
|
Djibril Michel
|
Male / 22
|
Niary Tally
|
Tertiary
|
8- BASSENE
|
Erik
|
Male / 25
|
Thiaroye
|
Tertiary
|
9- BASSENE
|
Erikol
|
Male / 65
|
Séléki
|
Primary
|
10- BASSENE
|
Etienne
|
Male / 54
|
Séléki
|
Primary
|
11- BASSENE
|
Florence D.
|
Female / 17
|
Séléki
|
Secondary
|
12- BASSENE
|
Florent F.
|
Male / 23
|
Grand Dakar
|
Tertiary
|
13- BASSENE
|
Frédéric
|
Male / 29
|
Sicap rue 10
|
Tertiary
|
14- BASSENE
|
Jean Christophe
|
Male / 17
|
Essil
|
Secondary
|
15- BASSENE
|
Juliette
|
Female / 18
|
Essil
|
Secondary
|
16- BASSENE
|
Louis Eketbo
|
Male / 55
|
Séléki
|
Primary
|
17- BASSENE
|
Mamadou Vieux
|
Male / 27
|
Thiaroye
|
Tertiary
|
18- BASSENE
|
Marius
|
Male / 25
|
Grand-Dakar
|
Tertiary
|
19- BASSENE
|
Sandrine Butai
|
Female / 24
|
Fass Delorme
|
Tertiary
|
20- BASSENE
|
Martin
|
Male / 24
|
Saint-Louis
|
Tertiary
|
21- BASSENE
|
Djibril Gachili
|
Male / 20
|
Saint-Louis
|
Tertiary
|
22- BASSENE
|
Ibra
|
Male / 66
|
Séléki
|
Primary
|
23- DIATTA
|
Barthélemy Josué
|
Male / 19
|
Essil
|
Secondary
|
24- DIATTA
|
Diouma
|
Female / 17
|
Kameubeul
|
Secondary
|
25- DIATTA
|
Félicité Nadège
|
Female / 18
|
Badiatte
|
Secondary
|
26- DIATTA
|
Pascaline
|
Female / 26
|
Sicap rue 10
|
Tertiary
|
27- DIATTA
|
Simplice
|
Male / 24
|
Grand Médine
|
Tertiary
|
28- DIEME
|
Ababacar Mbaye
|
Male / 15
|
Kameubeul
|
Secondary
|
29- GOUDIABY
|
Aliou
|
Male / 25
|
Dieuppeul
|
Tertiary
|
30- MANE
|
Berthe Awa
|
Female / 21
|
Parcelles Ass.
|
Tertiary
|
31- MANGA
|
Fansou
|
Male / 15
|
Enampor
|
Secondary
|
32- MANGA
|
Ndella Edith
|
Female / 18
|
Enampor
|
Secondary
|
33- MANGA
|
Robert Ousmane
|
Male / 17
|
Enampor
|
Secondary
|
34- MANGA
|
Eugénie A.
|
Female / 23
|
Saint-Louis
|
Tertiary
|
35- SAGNA
|
Amadou
|
Male / 17
|
Enampor
|
Secondary
|
36- SAGNA
|
Ibrahima
|
Male / 16
|
Banjal
|
Secondary
|
37- SAGNA
|
Moussa
|
Male / 17
|
Banjal
|
Secondary
|
38- SALL
|
Ousmane
|
Male / 25
|
Guédiewaye
|
Tertiary
|
39- SAMBOU
|
Assane Kassén
|
Male /26
|
Parcelles Ass.
|
Tertiary
|
40- SAMBOU
|
Léna
|
Female / 21
|
Guédiawaye
|
Tertiary
|
41- TENDENG
|
Charlotte
|
Female / 19
|
Batighère
|
Secondary
|
42- TENDENG
|
Danfa
|
Male / 41
|
Séléki
|
Secondary
|
43- TENDENG
|
Donat
|
Male / 26
|
Fass Casier
|
Tertiary
|
44- TENDENG
|
Gérard Ampa-B.
|
Male / 17
|
Batighère
|
Secondary
|
45- TENDENG
|
Madeleine
|
Female / 18
|
Enampor
|
Secondary
|
46- TENDENG
|
Malang
|
Male / 16
|
Séléki
|
Secondary
|
47- TENDENG
|
Souadou Dialika
|
Female / 17
|
Banjal
|
Secondary
|
48- TENDENG
|
Théodore
|
Male / 24
|
Sacré-Coeur
|
Tertiary
|
49- TENDENG
|
Youssouph
|
Male / 27
|
Ouakam
|
Tertiary
|
50- TENDENG
|
Ndèye Léna
|
Female / 26
|
Saint-Louis
|
Tertiary
|
|
|